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Recovery Library

Doc #82 — Hunting and Wild Harvest for Food Security

Sustainable Use of Wild Game, Marine Resources, and Wild Plants for New Zealand Under Isolation

Phase: 1–4 (Critical Phases 1–3; relevant through Phase 4 as farmed food systems stabilise) | Feasibility: [A] Established (wild harvest uses existing NZ capability, species, and equipment — the challenge is management, not technology)

Unreliable — not for operational use. Produced by AI under human direction and editorial review. This document contains errors of fact, judgment, and emphasis and has not been peer-reviewed. See About the Recovery Library for methodology and limitations. © 2026 Recoverable Foundation. Licensed under CC BY-ND 4.0. This disclaimer must be included in any reproduction or redistribution.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

New Zealand has substantial wild food resources: an estimated 210,000–300,000 wild deer across seven species, large populations of feral pigs and goats, an estimated 20–30 million brushtail possums (based on older surveys; the actual current population is uncertain), abundant rabbits and hares in parts of the South Island, significant populations of game birds, extensive marine fisheries, freshwater fisheries, and a range of edible wild plants. Under the baseline scenario — nuclear winter, permanent trade isolation, grid operational — these resources represent a meaningful supplement to farmed food production (Doc #74, Doc #75), though they cannot replace agriculture as the primary caloric source.

The central problem is not whether wild food resources exist. They do, and they are significant. The problem is sustainability. NZ’s wild animal populations have not been managed for sustained food production. They have been managed for sport hunting, pest control, and conservation — objectives that tolerate wide population fluctuations. Under famine pressure, unmanaged hunting will crash wild animal populations within two to five years, converting a renewable resource into a one-time windfall. The history of overharvesting is extensive: NZ’s own whaling industry collapsed from overharvesting, and the government’s own deer culling campaigns of the 1950s–1970s dramatically reduced deer numbers when pursuing eradication.1 The same can happen under uncoordinated survival hunting, but without the institutional capacity to recover the populations afterwards.

This document covers: what wild food resources NZ has and where, realistic sustainable harvest rates, the management systems needed from Day 1 to prevent overharvesting, alternative harvest methods that conserve ammunition, the role of Matauranga Maori in sustainable wild harvest, and a realistic assessment of how much of the national caloric requirement wild harvest can provide.

Key honest uncertainties: Wild animal population estimates for NZ are approximate. Deer population estimates, in particular, are based on incomplete survey data and vary widely depending on the source and methodology.2 Sustainable harvest rates depend on reproductive rates that may change under nuclear winter conditions (colder temperatures, reduced forage). Marine productivity under nuclear winter is uncertain — ocean cooling, reduced light, and altered currents will affect fish stocks, but the magnitude and timing are poorly constrained. All caloric estimates in this document should be treated as order-of-magnitude guidance, not precise figures.

Contents

First week

  1. Issue public guidance on firearm safety and hunting coordination. As food anxiety increases, more people will hunt — including many with little experience. The immediate risk is accidental shootings, not overharvesting. Messaging: hunting will be coordinated; do not shoot livestock (a real risk when inexperienced hunters encounter farmed deer or cattle); report all harvested animals.
  2. Designate existing Fish & Game and Department of Conservation (DOC) staff as wild harvest coordinators. These people have the ecological knowledge and field networks. They cannot be redeployed to other tasks.
  3. Suspend normal hunting licence requirements but impose emergency harvest reporting. The goal is to remove administrative barriers to legal hunting while establishing a reporting system. All harvested animals must be reported to local coordinators.
  4. Secure ammunition stocks. Inventory commercial ammunition held by retailers and wholesalers. Restrict sales to registered hunters and allocate based on reported harvest. Ammunition is a finite, critical, non-substitutable resource (Doc #1).

First month

  1. Establish regional harvest quotas. Based on best available population estimates by species and region. Initial quotas should be conservative — it is easier to increase quotas later than to rebuild a crashed population.
  2. Issue trapping and snaring guidance. Trapping does not consume ammunition and can harvest possums, rabbits, pigs, and goats effectively. Distribute designs for traps constructable from locally available materials.
  3. Establish possum harvest programme. Possums are NZ’s most abundant wild mammal, a destructive pest, and edible. Reframe possum control as food production. Coordinate with existing pest control operators.
  4. Issue marine harvest guidance. Coordinate with existing commercial and recreational fishing communities. Establish sustainable quota framework based on pre-event stock assessments.
  5. Engage iwi and hapu for Matauranga Maori harvest guidance. Traditional seasonal knowledge, rahui practice, and species management are directly applicable and should inform the national framework.

First season (months 1–6)

  1. Establish shellfish monitoring and quota systems for coastal communities. Shellfish beds can be depleted rapidly by unmanaged harvesting — pipi, cockle, and paua beds are particularly vulnerable.
  2. Begin training in bow hunting and crossbow use. These are ammunition-free harvest methods for deer and pigs, though less effective than firearms — shorter effective range (under 30–50 m vs. 200+ m for rifles), higher wounding rates without skilled technique, and months of practice required for consistent humane kills. Manufacturing crossbow bolts from local materials is feasible given access to hardwood shafts, recycled steel for broadheads (Doc #92), and fletching material, though locally produced bolts will be less consistent than commercial equivalents.
  3. Establish game bird harvest seasons and quotas. Breeding seasons must be protected.
  4. Begin wild plant harvest education. Distribute identification guides for edible wild plants, with emphasis on food safety (distinguishing edible from toxic species).
  5. Establish regional reporting and adaptive management. Harvest data feeds into quota adjustments. If populations decline faster than expected, quotas tighten immediately.

Ongoing (years 1–5+)

  1. Transition from opportunistic hunting to managed harvest. Wild animal populations are managed as a national food resource, not a free-for-all.
  2. Develop deer farming from wild capture. Live capture of wild deer for farming is an established NZ practice — the existing deer farming industry started this way in the 1970s–1980s.3 Captured animals integrated into pastoral farming system (Doc #74).
  3. Scale up trapping and reduce dependence on firearms ammunition.
  4. Develop aquaculture from wild-captured stock — mussel spat, oyster spat, and seaweed cultivation (Doc #81).
  5. Monitor population recovery and adjust quotas accordingly as nuclear winter eases and forage quality improves.

ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION

The value of managed wild harvest

Wild harvest provides food at low capital cost — the animals are already there, growing and reproducing without agricultural inputs. The economic question is whether the labour and ammunition expended on hunting produces more food value than the same labour applied to farming, fishing, or other food production.

Labour efficiency comparison (approximate):

  • Deer hunting (experienced hunter, productive area): One deer per 1–3 days of hunting effort. A red deer yields approximately 50–70 kg of usable meat.4 At approximately 1,500–2,000 kcal per kg of venison, one deer provides roughly 75,000–140,000 kcal. This equates to approximately 25,000–140,000 kcal per person-day of hunting effort — a wide range reflecting the reality that hunting success varies enormously.
  • Possum trapping: An experienced trapper running a line of 50–100 traps can harvest 10–30 possums per night.5 Each possum yields approximately 1–2 kg of usable meat (possums are small — 2–5 kg total body weight).6 At roughly 1,200 kcal per kg, this produces 12,000–72,000 kcal per person-day, plus fur for clothing production (Doc #36).
  • Rabbit hunting (Canterbury/Otago, experienced hunter): In high-density areas, 20–50 rabbits per day is achievable with a .22 rifle or traps.7 Each rabbit yields approximately 0.5–1 kg of usable meat, producing roughly 6,000–60,000 kcal per person-day. However, ammunition expenditure is significant at the higher harvest rates.
  • Shellfish gathering: Highly productive per labour-hour when beds are healthy. An experienced gatherer can collect 10–20 kg of shellfish (in shell) in 2–4 hours.8 Edible yield is roughly 20–30% of in-shell weight. At approximately 700–900 kcal per kg of shellfish meat, this produces roughly 1,400–5,400 kcal per gathering session — nutritionally valuable for micronutrients but low in calories.

Comparison with pastoral farming: Doc #74 estimates that managed pastoral farming under nuclear winter produces roughly 1,500–2,500 kcal per hectare per day (highly variable by region, season, and the severity of cooling). A single farmer managing 200 hectares produces 300,000–500,000 kcal per day. Farming is far more productive per worker than hunting — but hunting does not require land, fencing, or animal husbandry infrastructure, and wild harvest provides food from land that is too steep, remote, or forested for farming.

The economic case for wild harvest is supplementary, not primary. Wild harvest is most valuable as:

  • A protein and micronutrient supplement to a diet dominated by farmed grains and dairy
  • Food production from land that cannot be farmed (bush, mountains, coast)
  • A one-time protein windfall during destocking of overabundant pests (possums, rabbits)
  • A source of materials (possum fur, deer hides) that have non-food value
  • A culturally important food source for Maori and rural communities

Person-years of effort: If 5,000–10,000 people are engaged in hunting, trapping, and wild harvest nationally (roughly 0.1–0.2% of the population), the total labour investment is 5,000–10,000 person-years per year. The caloric return, if managed well, could be 3–8% of national food requirements — a meaningful supplement but not a substitute for agriculture.9

Opportunity cost of overharvesting

If wild animal populations crash from unmanaged hunting, the loss is permanent for the planning horizon. A deer population reduced to 10% of its current level will take 10–20 years to recover, even with complete hunting cessation. The opportunity cost of crashing the deer population in Year 1 is the loss of sustainable harvest for Years 2–20. Initial restraint produces far more total food over a decade than unrestricted hunting in Year 1.

1. WILD ANIMAL POPULATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION

1.1 Deer

NZ has seven species of introduced deer, all descended from deliberate introductions in the 19th and early 20th centuries for sport hunting:10

Species Estimated population Primary range
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) 150,000–200,000 Widespread, both islands, highest densities in Fiordland, Westland, Southern Alps foothills
Fallow deer (Dama dama) 20,000–30,000 Scattered herds, both islands, Blue Mountains (Otago), Wanganui
Sika deer (Cervus nippon) 30,000–50,000 Central North Island (Kaimanawa and Kaweka ranges)
Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) 2,000–5,000 Manawatu, limited range
Rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) 1,000–3,000 Rotorua district, limited range
Wapiti/elk (Cervus canadensis) 1,500–3,000 Fiordland only, hybridising with red deer
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 5,000–10,000 Stewart Island, limited Lake Wakatipu area

Total estimated wild deer: 210,000–300,000+. These figures are approximate. DOC and research estimates vary, and population surveys of deer in dense bush are inherently imprecise.11

Sustainable harvest rate: Deer populations under moderate hunting pressure can sustain an annual harvest of approximately 10–20% of the population without long-term decline, depending on the age and sex composition of the harvest.12 For a population of approximately 250,000, this implies a sustainable annual harvest of 25,000–50,000 animals. At 50–70 kg of usable meat per animal, this produces 1,250–3,500 tonnes of venison per year — a significant protein contribution but far less than NZ’s farmed meat production (approximately 600,000–700,000 tonnes of red meat per year under normal conditions).13

Nuclear winter impact on deer: Reduced pasture growth, reduced browse availability, and colder temperatures will reduce deer body condition and reproductive rates. Fawn survival will decline. The deer population will shrink under nuclear winter regardless of hunting pressure. This complicates management — the sustainable harvest rate from a declining population is lower than from a stable one. Conservative initial quotas are essential.

Hunting considerations: Most of NZ’s wild deer live in mountainous, forested terrain that is difficult to access. Effective deer hunting requires significant fitness, bush skills, and usually multi-day trips. This is not food that can be casually harvested by urban populations. The most effective deer harvesting will be done by experienced hunters operating in established areas with good access. Helicopter hunting, which was the primary method of commercial deer recovery in the 1970s–1980s, depends on aviation fuel — a finite resource under isolation.

1.2 Feral pigs

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) are widespread in NZ, especially in the North Island. Population estimates are uncertain but probably in the range of 50,000–100,000 nationally.14 They are found in bush margins, hill country, and lowland forests from Northland to Fiordland.

Food value: Feral pigs are larger than most NZ game animals. A mature boar may weigh 80–120 kg, yielding 30–60 kg of usable meat. Sows and younger animals are smaller. Pig meat is high in calories (fattier than venison), and can be preserved by smoking, salting, or drying (Doc #78). Pigs are omnivorous and hardy — they will persist under nuclear winter conditions better than herbivores because they can exploit a wider range of food sources.

Sustainability: Pig reproductive rates are high (sows can produce 4–8 piglets per litter, twice per year in favourable conditions).15 This makes pig populations more resilient to hunting pressure than deer. A harvest rate of 20–40% annually may be sustainable, provided breeding sows are not disproportionately targeted. However, pig populations are patchy — local populations can be hunted out even while the national population persists. Regional management is essential.

Hunting methods: Pig hunting in NZ is traditionally done with dogs, often with a knife rather than a firearm. This is physically demanding and requires trained pig dogs, but it conserves ammunition entirely. This hunting tradition is well-established in rural NZ, particularly among Maori communities, and can be expanded with training.16

1.3 Feral goats

Feral goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) are present throughout NZ, primarily in hill country and scrubland. Population estimates are uncertain — probably 100,000–300,000 nationally, though numbers have declined substantially from historical peaks due to DOC control programmes.17

Food value: Goats are smaller than deer (25–50 kg carcass weight), but goat meat (chevon) is lean, high in protein, and widely consumed globally. A managed harvest could contribute meaningfully to local protein supply in regions where goats are abundant (Kaimanawa, East Cape, parts of Wairarapa).

Sustainability: Goat reproductive rates are moderate (1–3 kids per year). Populations can recover from heavy hunting within 3–5 years if not completely eliminated. As with pigs, local populations can be hunted out even when the species is common nationally.

Secondary value: Live capture of feral goats for dairy use is feasible and historically practised. A feral nanny goat, once habituated, can produce 1–3 litres of milk per day — modest by commercial dairy goat standards (which achieve 3–6 litres/day from selected breeds) but valuable at household level.18 Feral goats are unselected for dairy traits and yields will be at the low end of this range for most animals. Goat milk is also easier to digest than cow milk for some individuals due to smaller fat globules and different casein composition. Live capture converts a one-time meat harvest into an ongoing dairy resource.

1.4 Rabbits and hares

European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are abundant in parts of Canterbury, Otago, Marlborough, and Hawke’s Bay, where populations periodically reach plague densities of 40–80 rabbits per hectare on favourable land.19 Brown hares (Lepus europaeus) are widespread at lower densities across most of NZ’s open country.

Food value: Rabbits are small (1–2 kg carcass weight) but nutritious. In high-density areas, they can be harvested in large numbers — historically, commercial rabbit harvesters exported millions of rabbit carcasses from Canterbury and Otago. Rabbit meat is lean (approximately 1,100 kcal per kg) and must be supplemented with fat sources to avoid protein poisoning if consumed as a primary food (so-called “rabbit starvation”).20

Sustainability: Rabbit populations are highly resilient. Reproductive rates are extraordinary — a doe can produce 4–8 litters per year with 4–8 kits per litter. In high-density areas, even very heavy harvesting rarely eliminates rabbits. In many regions, rabbit harvesting is pest control that simultaneously produces food — a direct parallel to the possum situation.

Harvest methods: Rabbits can be harvested by shooting (.22 rifle or shotgun), ferreting, trapping, snaring, and netting. Ferreting (using domesticated ferrets to drive rabbits from burrows into nets) is particularly efficient and conserves ammunition. Rabbit-proof netting over burrow entrances can capture large numbers overnight.

1.5 Possums

The brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is NZ’s most abundant introduced mammal, with a population estimated at approximately 30 million — though this figure is an older estimate and the actual current population may be lower due to decades of intensive pest control.21 Possums are NZ’s most damaging ecological pest, destroying native forest and spreading bovine tuberculosis (Tb) to cattle and deer herds.

Food value: Possum meat is edible and was eaten routinely in Australia (where the species is native and protected) and was consumed in NZ historically. A possum yields approximately 1–2 kg of usable meat.22 The meat is dark, lean, and somewhat gamey — comparable to rabbit or squirrel. At a population of even 20 million, and a conservative sustainable harvest of 10–15% annually, NZ could harvest 2–3 million possums per year, producing 2,000–6,000 tonnes of meat.

Non-food value: Possum fur is one of NZ’s most valuable wild resources. It is hollow-fibred, lightweight, and exceptionally warm. Possum-merino blend yarn is a premium product. Under isolation conditions, possum fur becomes a critical material for warm clothing production (Doc #36). Every possum harvested for food also produces fur for textiles — a dual-benefit harvest.

Sustainability: Possum reproductive rate is low for a pest species — typically one young per year, occasionally two.23 However, the population is so large relative to any realistic harvest rate that overharvesting possums nationally is essentially impossible. Local depletion is possible in small areas, but this is ecologically desirable. Possum harvest should be maximised, not restricted — it simultaneously produces food, fur, and conservation outcomes.

Harvest methods: Leg-hold traps, kill traps (Timms traps, DOC series traps), and poison (1080 and cyanide) are the established methods. Under food harvest conditions, poison is obviously not applicable — all harvest must use mechanical traps, shooting (.22 or air rifle), or hand-capture. Trapping is the most efficient method: an experienced trapper with 50–100 traps can harvest 10–30 possums per night over a sustained period.24

1.6 Game birds

NZ has established populations of several game bird species:

  • Mallard ducks: Abundant, estimated 2–5 million nationally.25 Found on wetlands, rivers, and estuaries throughout NZ.
  • Paradise shelduck (putangitangi): Common, particularly in South Island farm country. Approximately 600,000–700,000 nationally.26
  • Canada geese: Established in Canterbury, Otago, and scattered elsewhere. Estimated 30,000–50,000 nationally.27
  • Black swan: Abundant on lakes and estuaries, particularly in the South Island. Approximately 50,000–100,000.
  • Pheasant: Present but not abundant, primarily in lowland North Island and Canterbury.
  • Quail (California and brown): Localised, not a significant food source at national scale.
  • Pukeko (Porphyrio melanotus): Common, a native species found on wetlands throughout NZ. Traditionally hunted by Maori. No reliable national population estimate available; widespread but density varies by habitat.

Sustainable harvest: Game birds reproduce seasonally and are vulnerable to overharvesting during the breeding season. Strict seasonal restrictions are essential — no hunting during nesting and brood-rearing (roughly September–January for most species). Outside these periods, moderate harvesting is sustainable. Mallards and paradise shelducks are the highest-volume species.

Caloric contribution: Game birds provide modest total calories relative to large mammals but are valuable for dietary variety and can be harvested with minimal equipment (shotguns, or nets and decoys). Egg harvesting is also possible for some species, though this directly reduces reproduction and should be regulated.

1.7 Marine resources

NZ’s marine resources are covered in detail in Doc #81 (fisheries management). Key points for wild harvest planning:

  • Inshore fin fish: Snapper, tarakihi, kahawai, blue cod, gurnard, and many other species. NZ’s recreational fishery is already significant — an estimated 1.2 million recreational fishing trips per year, landing approximately 8,000–9,000 tonnes of fish.28
  • Shellfish: Paua (Haliotis iris), green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus), cockles (Austrovenus stutchburyi), pipi (Paphies australis), toheroa (Paphies ventricosa — rare, restricted), kina (Evechinus chloroticus), and crayfish/rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii). All are vulnerable to overharvesting at the local level.
  • Commercial fisheries: NZ’s commercial fishing fleet can continue operating as long as fuel is available and vessels are maintained. The Quota Management System (QMS) provides an existing framework for sustainable management, though quotas will need revision under changed marine conditions.29

The shellfish overharvesting problem: Shellfish beds are the most vulnerable marine resource to unmanaged harvesting. They are accessible without boats, visible at low tide, and require no equipment. A large group of desperate people can strip a pipi or cockle bed bare in a single day. Recovery takes years. Coastal rahui and quota enforcement are essential from Day 1.

Nuclear winter impact on marine productivity: Ocean cooling and reduced light will reduce marine primary productivity (phytoplankton growth). The effects propagate up the food chain, but with significant lag — adult fish populations may not show decline for 1–3 years. Shellfish, which are filter-feeders dependent on phytoplankton, may decline sooner. Sustainable harvest rates under nuclear winter should be set conservatively below pre-event levels until monitoring data shows actual stock trajectories.

1.8 Freshwater fisheries

NZ has extensive freshwater fisheries, dominated by introduced species:

  • Brown trout (Salmo trutta): Abundant throughout both islands in rivers and lakes. Self-sustaining populations. NZ’s most accessible freshwater food fish.
  • Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): Abundant, particularly in North Island rivers and lakes (Rotorua, Taupo, and tributaries).
  • Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha): South Island east coast rivers (Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, Waitaki and others). Annual runs provide a seasonal harvest.
  • Shortfin and longfin eels (Anguilla australis and A. dieffenbachii): Native, widespread in rivers, streams, wetlands, and some lakes. Longfin eels are endemic to NZ and are classified as declining due to historical overharvesting and habitat loss.30

Food value: Trout and salmon are high-quality protein sources. A good-sized brown trout (1–3 kg) or rainbow trout (1–4 kg) provides a substantial meal. Salmon are larger (3–10 kg). Eels are energy-dense due to high fat content — longfin eels typically weigh 1–5 kg, though exceptional individuals in undisturbed habitats can reach 15–20 kg.31 Eel meat represents one of the highest calorie-per-kg freshwater food sources available.

Sustainability: Trout populations in NZ are generally healthy and self-sustaining. Under nuclear winter, reduced insect hatches and colder water will reduce trout growth rates, but the fish will persist. Moderate fishing pressure is sustainable. Salmon runs are more sensitive — they depend on ocean conditions during the marine phase of their life cycle, and nuclear winter disruption to ocean productivity could reduce run sizes.

Eel management requires particular care. Longfin eels are slow-growing (may take 25–80 years to reach sexual maturity), migrate once to breed and die, and cannot be easily restocked.32 They are a finite population resource — every large eel harvested is one that will never breed. Tuna (eels) are culturally significant to Maori and were traditionally managed through rahui and seasonal harvest restrictions. These traditional management practices are directly applicable and should be adopted as the basis for eel management under emergency conditions. Short-term food needs must be balanced against the irreplaceable nature of the longfin eel population.

2. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS

NZ has a range of edible wild plants, both native and introduced. None provide significant calories — the value of wild plants is primarily in vitamins, minerals, and dietary variety that supplement a calorie-dense but nutritionally monotonous diet of farmed grain, dairy, and meat.

2.1 Key edible species

Native plants:

  • Puha (Sonchus oleraceus and S. asper): Widespread, grows as a weed in gardens and waste ground. Eaten raw or cooked. Rich in vitamins A and C, iron, and calcium. Traditionally an important Maori food.33
  • Pikopiko (bush fern fronds): Young unfurling fronds of Cyathea and Asplenium species. Harvested in spring. Eaten cooked. Traditional Maori delicacy.
  • Kawakawa (Piper excelsum): Leaves used as a food flavouring and traditional medicine. Rich in myristicin. Not a staple food but a valuable flavouring agent when imported spices are unavailable.
  • Karaka berries (Corynocarpus laevigatus): The flesh is edible, but the kernel is toxic unless processed by prolonged soaking and cooking — a process well-established in traditional Maori practice.34 Karaka trees are common in northern NZ. Improper processing causes severe illness. This is not a food source for untrained harvesters.
  • Supplejack berries (Ripogonum scandens): Small, edible berries available in autumn. Minor food source.
  • Hinau berries (Elaeocarpus dentatus): Traditionally processed by Maori into a flour. Labour-intensive but produces a starchy food.
  • Ti kouka/cabbage tree (Cordyline australis): The inner stem and root were traditionally cooked in an umu (earth oven) for extended periods to convert starch to sugar. A significant traditional carbohydrate source.35

Introduced/naturalised plants:

  • Watercress (Nasturtium officinale): Abundant in clean streams throughout NZ. Rich in vitamins C and K, iron, and calcium. Can be eaten raw or cooked. Grows year-round. One of NZ’s most valuable wild food plants — high nutritional density, widespread, easily identified, and difficult to confuse with toxic species.
  • Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus): Abundant, considered a pest. Fruit available January–March. High in vitamins and fibre. Can be preserved as jam (if sugar is available) or dried.
  • Wild fennel (Foeniculum vulgare): Naturalised in many coastal and waste areas. Edible leaves, seeds, and bulb.
  • Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale): Leaves edible (bitter when mature — young leaves are milder). Roots can be roasted as a coffee substitute. Widespread.
  • Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus): Common garden escape. Leaves, flowers, and seeds all edible. Seeds can be pickled as a caper substitute.
  • Fat hen/lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album): Common weed. Leaves cooked like spinach. Rich in protein for a leafy green.

2.2 Wild plant safety

Misidentification is a genuine risk. NZ has toxic plants that can be confused with edible species by inexperienced foragers. Examples:

  • Hemlock (Conium maculatum) grows in similar environments to wild fennel and can be fatally toxic. The two are distinguishable (hemlock has purple-blotched stems, an unpleasant smell, and different leaf shape) but the risk of confusion is real.36
  • Tutu (Coriaria arborea and related species) is one of NZ’s most toxic plants. All parts except the fruit flesh are poisonous. The seeds are toxic — even eating the berries is dangerous if seeds are crushed or swallowed. Tutu is widespread in NZ bush margins.37
  • Karaka kernels are toxic unless properly processed (see above).

Response: Wild plant harvest guidance must include clear identification information, ideally with illustrations. Community training sessions should be conducted before widespread foraging is encouraged. The principle is: eat only what you can positively identify. When in doubt, do not eat it. Starvation from caution takes weeks; poisoning from misidentification can kill in hours.

2.3 Caloric reality

Wild plants will not provide meaningful calories for a population of 5.2 million. Their value is nutritional supplementation — vitamins, minerals, and variety. A person foraging for wild greens might collect 1–3 kg per day, providing perhaps 100–500 kcal (leafy greens are low in calories) along with essential micronutrients. The time spent foraging is better justified as a supplement to a farmed-food diet than as a primary food source.

The exception is in localised or temporary situations: a tramping party stranded in the bush, a coastal community waiting for food distribution to reach them, or communities in areas where road transport is disrupted. In these situations, knowledge of wild edible plants can be the difference between adequate and inadequate nutrition.

3. SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT

3.1 The overharvesting problem

The fundamental threat to wild food resources is unmanaged harvesting. Under famine pressure, game populations follow a predictable trajectory:

  1. Year 1: Heavy hunting reduces easily accessible populations. Harvest rates are high. Hunters report plentiful game.
  2. Year 2: Animals in accessible areas are depleted. Hunters must travel further, expend more effort. Harvest rates decline.
  3. Years 3–5: Populations in accessible areas collapse. Only remote populations remain. Hunting becomes economically marginal — the energy expended exceeds the food returned. Experienced hunters report the bush is “empty.”
  4. Years 5–15: Without hunting pressure, populations slowly recover — but only if breeding populations survived. If local populations were completely eliminated, recovery depends on immigration from other areas, which is slow in NZ’s fragmented bush habitats.

This trajectory has been observed repeatedly in NZ. Government deer cullers in the 1950s–1960s reduced deer to very low densities in many areas — populations took decades to recover.38 A similar pattern occurred with sealing and whaling.

3.2 Management framework

Sustainable wild harvest requires four elements:

Population monitoring: Regular surveys of key species in key areas. For deer and pigs, this can be done through standardised indicators — faecal pellet counts, track counts, and harvest-per-unit-effort data reported by hunters. For shellfish, regular bed surveys. For fish, catch-per-unit-effort data from commercial and recreational fishers. DOC and Fish & Game staff have established methodologies for all of these.

Harvest quotas: Regional and species-specific quotas set below the estimated sustainable yield. Quotas should initially be very conservative (perhaps 5–10% of estimated population rather than the theoretical maximum) because population estimates are uncertain and nuclear winter will reduce reproductive rates.

Seasonal restrictions: Most species have breeding seasons during which harvest should cease or be restricted. For deer, the rut (March–April for red deer) is actually the traditional hunting season because animals are more visible and vocal — but heavy rut hunting selectively removes breeding males. For game birds, the nesting season (September–January) must be strictly protected. For fish and shellfish, spawning seasons vary by species and region.

Reporting and enforcement: All harvest must be reported. This is the most difficult element to enforce under emergency conditions — there are strong incentives to underreport or hunt without reporting. The enforcement approach must rely primarily on community self-regulation and social pressure rather than punitive enforcement by overstretched authorities. The traditional Maori rahui system, in which harvest restrictions are socially rather than legally enforced, provides a model (see Section 5).

3.3 Species-specific management priorities

High priority (vulnerable to overharvesting):

  • Longfin eels — slow-growing, non-renewable on human timescales. Strict quotas essential.
  • Paua — slow-growing, sedentary, easily harvested, historically overfished in many areas. Coastal rahui needed.
  • Crayfish/rock lobster — slow-growing, commercially valuable, already fully exploited pre-event.
  • Deer in accessible areas — populations near roads and towns will be hunted first and hardest.
  • Salmon — dependent on ocean conditions; runs may decline under nuclear winter.

Medium priority (moderate resilience):

  • Feral pigs — higher reproductive rate than deer but patchy distribution.
  • Feral goats — moderate reproductive rate; localised populations can be eliminated.
  • Game birds — seasonal vulnerability during breeding.
  • Trout — generally resilient but localised populations can be fished out.
  • Inshore fin fish — moderate resilience but dependent on stock levels.
  • Cockles and pipi — faster-growing than paua but beds still vulnerable to rapid depletion.

Low priority (overharvesting unlikely at national scale):

  • Possums — population vastly exceeds any realistic harvest capacity. Maximise harvest.
  • Rabbits in high-density areas — reproduce faster than any realistic harvest rate in plague areas.
  • Watercress — regrows rapidly from waterway margins; difficult to overharvest.
  • Blackberries — prolific fruiting, invasive, essentially impossible to overharvest.

4. AMMUNITION AND ALTERNATIVE HARVEST METHODS

4.1 The ammunition constraint

NZ does not manufacture ammunition domestically in significant quantities. Existing stocks include commercial retail inventory, military stocks, and privately held ammunition.39 Under permanent trade isolation, this is a finite, non-renewable resource.

Approximate national ammunition stocks (order-of-magnitude estimate): NZ has approximately 250,000 licensed firearms holders and roughly 1–1.5 million firearms.40 Estimating average ammunition holdings is difficult, but if the average licensed holder has 200–500 rounds (highly variable — some have thousands, many have very few), total privately held ammunition might be in the range of 50–125 million rounds. Retail and wholesale stocks add to this. Military stocks are separate and smaller in total but include types not widely available commercially.

This sounds like a large number, but consumption rates under sustained hunting would be significant. If 10,000 active hunters each use 5 rounds per day, that is 50,000 rounds per day or approximately 18 million rounds per year. At that rate, national stocks would last roughly 3–7 years. Since some ammunition types will be depleted much sooner (certain calibres will run out before others), the practical constraint will bind sooner for some purposes.

Response: Ammunition must be treated as a strategic resource from Day 1. Every round fired at a game animal is a round not available for future hunting or other essential purposes. Ammunition conservation practices include:

  • Shoot only at high-probability targets. No long-range or speculative shots.
  • Use the smallest effective calibre. .22 LR for possums and rabbits, not centrefire. .308 or .270 for deer, not magnum cartridges.
  • Prioritise trapping and non-firearm methods for species where they are effective.
  • Reloading: Experienced handloaders can reload fired brass cases. This extends effective ammunition supply significantly if primers, powder, and projectiles are available. Primers are the hardest component to manufacture locally — they require mercury fulminate or lead styphnate, both of which require chemical precursors and precise manufacture.41 Powder and projectiles are more feasible to produce locally, though at lower quality than commercial equivalents.

4.2 Trapping and snaring

Trapping is the primary ammunition-free harvest method for small and medium game.

Kill traps: Timms traps, DOC 200 and DOC 250 traps, and Goodnature self-resetting traps are already deployed in their tens of thousands across NZ for pest control. Many of these can be repurposed for food harvest. Additional traps can be manufactured by blacksmiths (Doc #92) from mild steel, requiring a working forge, spring steel for the kill mechanism, and welding or riveting capability. Locally made traps will be less consistent than commercial equivalents and require individual testing and adjustment.

Leg-hold traps: Effective for possums and small predators. Existing stocks are substantial due to the fur industry and pest control sector. Animals are dispatched by hand (a blow to the head) — no ammunition required.

Snares: Wire snares can be manufactured from fencing wire (abundant in NZ) and are effective for rabbits, possums, and pigs. Snaring requires skill to set correctly — a poorly placed snare catches nothing or injures an animal without killing it. Training is essential.

Box traps and cage traps: Useful for live capture — particularly for goats and pigs intended for farming rather than immediate slaughter. Can be constructed from timber and wire mesh.

Deadfall traps: The simplest form of trap, constructable from natural materials (logs, rocks, sticks). Can catch possums and rabbits but are significantly less reliable than manufactured kill traps — trigger sensitivity is inconsistent, kill rates are lower (injured rather than killed animals are common), and they require frequent checking and resetting. Requires no manufactured components. Traditional in many cultures and can be taught rapidly, but should be viewed as a last-resort method when manufactured traps are unavailable, not as an equivalent substitute.

4.3 Bow hunting and crossbows

Bows and crossbows are effective for deer and pig hunting at close range (under 30 metres for bows, under 50 metres for crossbows). They require significant skill — ethical bow hunting of deer requires months to years of practice for consistent, humane kills. However, arrows and bolts can be manufactured locally from timber, steel (arrowheads from recycled steel — Doc #92), and natural or synthetic fletching.

Crossbows are more accessible to beginners than traditional bows — they are aimed and triggered like a firearm, though effective range is substantially shorter (under 50 m vs. 200+ m for a rifle) and the rate of fire is much slower (one shot per 15–30 seconds vs. bolt-action rifle at one per 3–5 seconds). A crossbow with a draw weight of 150 lbs or more is effective on deer at close range. Crossbow manufacture from local materials requires: seasoned hardwood or leaf-spring steel for limbs, a machined steel trigger mechanism (requiring lathe or milling capability — Doc #91), and high-tensile cord (synthetic bowstring material from existing stocks, or multi-strand natural fibre cord, which stretches more and degrades faster). A locally made crossbow is functional but less powerful, less accurate, and less durable than a commercial unit.

Training requirement: Bow and crossbow hunting should begin during Phase 1 while ammunition is still available and food pressure is manageable. By Phase 2–3, these should be established alternative methods. Training programmes should be established through community hunting clubs and iwi.

4.4 Fishing methods

Fishing does not generally consume ammunition (spearfishing is an exception, but it uses reusable spears). Key methods:

  • Rod and line: Existing recreational fishing gear is abundant. Hooks and line are finite but compact — stocks will last years. Hooks can be manufactured locally from steel wire (Doc #105).
  • Nets: Set nets, drag nets, and cast nets are effective for bulk harvest. Net manufacture from synthetic or natural fibre is feasible. Existing commercial nets will last years with repair.
  • Long-lining: Used commercially; effective for offshore fish. Hooks are the consumable.
  • Hinaki (eel pots): Traditional Maori eel traps woven from supplejack or other vine. Effective, reusable, constructable from natural materials. An established technology with centuries of refinement.42
  • Pa tuna (eel weirs): Traditional Maori structures built across streams to channel eels into traps. Highly effective during eel migration seasons. A managed harvest technology that demonstrates sophisticated understanding of eel ecology.43

5. TRADITIONAL HARVEST KNOWLEDGE AND MANAGEMENT

NZ holds multiple traditions of practical harvest knowledge developed outside formal scientific frameworks — knowledge acquired through generations of direct observation and local experience. Under recovery conditions, this knowledge becomes operationally important because it addresses the specific species, habitats, and seasonal patterns of NZ’s landscape in ways that imported textbook ecology does not.

5.1 Community-based harvest closures

Overharvesting of localised resources — a shellfish bed, a fishing ground, a particular stretch of river — requires a management response faster and more geographically specific than legislative regulation. Two traditions in NZ provide models for this.

Rahui (Maori temporary harvest bans). Rahui is the traditional Maori practice of imposing a temporary ban on harvesting a resource — a particular fishing ground, shellfish bed, bird colony, or forest area. Rahui is declared by the local hapu or iwi authority (often a kaumatua or rangatira) and is socially enforced through the mana of the declaring authority.44 Rahui is faster to implement than legislative regulation, requires no bureaucratic infrastructure, and has the advantage of social legitimacy in communities where it is practised. Under emergency conditions, the government should formally recognise and support the rahui authority of iwi and hapū over local marine, freshwater, and terrestrial resources — it is faster to implement than legislative regulation, requires no bureaucratic infrastructure, and carries social legitimacy in the communities where it applies.

Rural and recreational harvest conventions. NZ’s rural and recreational hunting and fishing communities have their own informal norms for resource management — voluntary catch-and-release on particular streams, informal agreements to leave specific areas unhunted during fawning, local conventions about not netting certain estuaries. Fish & Game NZ and hunting clubs hold institutional memory of these arrangements. While less formalised than rahui, they serve the same function: community-level harvest restraint without bureaucratic overhead.

Implementation: Where rahui or equivalent local conventions exist, support and formalise them. Where neither exists, create them: empower local community authorities — whether iwi, farming communities, coastal settlements, or Fish & Game committees — to declare harvest closures on specific resources in specific areas based on observed depletion. The principle is localised, responsive, authority-backed harvest management. This works because it is flexible (can be declared and lifted quickly), geographically specific, and backed by social rather than legal enforcement.

5.2 Local and traditional harvest knowledge

Multiple NZ communities hold practical harvest knowledge developed through long experience with specific species and environments. This knowledge should inform regional harvest plans.

Maori harvest knowledge. Maori communities possess the deepest locally-developed harvest knowledge in NZ, reflecting centuries of managing these specific ecosystems:

  • Seasonal timing. Traditional Maori harvesting calendars (maramataka) identify optimal harvest periods for different species based on moon phases, tidal patterns, seasonal cycles, and observed animal behaviour.45 This knowledge is not widely documented in Western scientific literature but is held by practitioners in iwi and hapu communities.
  • Species identification and preparation. Knowledge of which native plants are edible, how to process toxic species (e.g., karaka), and how to prepare traditional foods (e.g., puha, pikopiko, titi/muttonbird).
  • Habitat management. Traditional burning practices, stream management, and forest management that maintained food-producing ecosystems.
  • Eel management. Tuna (eels) have been a staple food for Maori for centuries. The knowledge of where eels live, when they migrate, how to build pa tuna, and how to harvest sustainably is held by eel specialists in many river communities.46

Rural hunting and fishing knowledge. NZ’s experienced recreational and professional hunters hold practical knowledge that is similarly locality-specific, though less systematically organised: knowledge of deer movement patterns across specific terrain, seasonal patterns of pig activity in particular valleys, productive fishing spots and the tides and conditions that make them productive, and effective trapping methods for specific species in specific habitats. Pig hunters — particularly in the North Island, where pig hunting with dogs is a well-established rural tradition — hold detailed knowledge of local pig populations, terrain, and hunting techniques that cannot be replicated from written guidance.47 Professional possum trappers know the specific tree species, terrain features, and seasonal patterns that determine trapping productivity in their areas.

Commercial fishing knowledge. NZ’s commercial fishing fleet holds operational knowledge of inshore fish species distribution, seasonal movements, productive grounds, and catch methods accumulated over decades of daily observation. Experienced skippers know which grounds produce which species at which times of year — knowledge that is partially captured in Quota Management System data but is most fully held by the people who fish these waters regularly.

Action required: Identify and engage holders of local harvest knowledge — Maori practitioners, experienced hunters, commercial fishers, and professional trappers — as priority consultants in the emergency wild harvest programme. Their knowledge should inform regional harvest plans, not be treated as a supplementary input. The Recovery Library should be used in conjunction with, not as a substitute for, locally-held practical knowledge. Maori practitioners in particular should be engaged early, as their knowledge covers the broadest range of species and ecosystems, including native species (eels, native plants, shellfish) where Western-tradition harvest knowledge in NZ is thinner.

6. NUTRITIONAL CONTRIBUTION: A REALISTIC ASSESSMENT

6.1 Total caloric potential of wild harvest

NZ’s population of approximately 5.2 million people requires roughly 10–12 billion kcal per day (at approximately 2,000–2,300 kcal per person per day).48 The question is: what fraction of this can wild harvest supply?

Order-of-magnitude estimate:

Source Sustainable annual yield (tonnes) Approximate kcal (billions/year)
Wild deer 1,250–3,500 (meat) 1.9–7.0
Feral pigs 500–2,000 1.0–5.0
Feral goats 500–2,000 0.7–3.0
Possums 2,000–6,000 2.4–7.2
Rabbits/hares 1,000–3,000 1.1–3.3
Game birds 500–1,500 0.6–2.0
Marine fish (inshore recreational + commercial) 10,000–30,000 8.0–27.0
Shellfish 2,000–5,000 1.4–4.5
Freshwater fish & eels 500–1,500 0.5–1.8
Wild plants Negligible caloric contribution —
Total ~18,000–55,000 ~17.6–60.8

NZ’s total annual caloric requirement is roughly 3,700–4,400 billion kcal. Wild harvest at sustainable levels might supply approximately 18–61 billion kcal, or roughly 0.5–1.5% of total caloric need — at best, a small fraction.

However, this understates the value. Wild harvest contributes disproportionately to:

  • Protein supply: Animal protein is the primary nutritional gap that wild harvest fills. Farmed grains provide calories; wild harvest provides protein and fat.
  • Micronutrients: Fish, shellfish, and wild greens provide iodine, iron, zinc, omega-3 fatty acids, and vitamins that may be deficient in a grain-and-dairy diet.
  • Dietary variety: Psychological and physiological benefits of dietary diversity under long-term rationing.
  • Regional food security: In areas far from dairy and cropping production (West Coast, Fiordland, Northland bush communities), wild harvest may provide a much larger fraction of local food — perhaps 10–30% in some communities.

6.2 Phase-dependent contribution

The relative importance of wild harvest changes across recovery phases:

Phase 1 (Months 0–12): Wild harvest is a supplement to existing food stocks and continuing agricultural production. Its value is primarily in extending meat supplies during livestock destocking (Doc #74) and providing food for rural communities. Establishing management frameworks is more important than maximising harvest.

Phase 2 (Years 1–3): Peak nuclear winter. Agricultural production at its lowest. Wild harvest becomes relatively more important as a protein supplement, though absolute wild harvest will also decline as animal populations respond to reduced forage. This is the period of greatest overharvesting risk — food stress is highest and wild animal populations are declining naturally.

Phase 3 (Years 3–7): Nuclear winter easing. Agricultural production recovering. Wild animal populations beginning to recover if managed well. Harvest quotas can gradually increase. This is when good management in Phases 1–2 pays off.

Phase 4 (Years 7–15): Agriculture normalising. Wild harvest becomes less critical for national food security but remains valuable for protein supplementation, pest management (possums, rabbits), and cultural and recreational purposes.

7. FIREARMS MANAGEMENT UNDER EMERGENCY CONDITIONS

7.1 The problem

Pre-event NZ has approximately 250,000 licensed firearms holders.49 Post-event, many more people will attempt to acquire and use firearms for hunting, whether legally or not. This creates three overlapping problems:

  1. Safety: Inexperienced shooters in the bush are a danger to themselves and others. NZ already has hunting fatalities each year despite a licencing system designed to ensure minimum competency.
  2. Uncoordinated hunting: Without coordination, multiple parties hunting the same area are both unsafe and inefficient.
  3. Ammunition waste: Inexperienced hunters expend more ammunition per kill.

7.2 Management approach

Retain the licensed firearms framework but simplify it. The existing system — safety courses, licence application, police vetting — takes weeks and is not feasible at scale during an emergency. An abbreviated safety course (1–2 hours, covering safe firearm handling, basic marksmanship, hunting safety, and the emergency harvest reporting system) should be available to all adults who wish to hunt. Completion of this course permits hunting under the emergency framework.

Establish designated hunting areas and coordination. Each region should designate areas open for hunting, with coordination to prevent multiple parties in the same area. This is standard hunting safety practice applied at regional scale. Fish & Game and DOC staff are the natural coordinators.

Organised hunting parties. Where possible, hunting should be conducted by organised parties — experienced hunters paired with less experienced individuals. This improves safety, harvest efficiency, and ammunition conservation.

Security of firearms. Under emergency conditions, the risk of firearms being used for criminal purposes or interpersonal violence increases. The existing requirement for secure storage should be maintained and enforced. Secure storage is a public safety requirement — the recovery scenario does not benefit from widespread unsecured firearms.

CRITICAL UNCERTAINTIES

Uncertainty Impact if worse than expected Impact if better than expected
Wild animal population estimates are inaccurate (actual numbers significantly lower) Sustainable harvest is smaller; overharvesting risk is higher; quotas must be more conservative Larger sustainable harvest; more buffer against management errors
Nuclear winter reduces wild animal reproductive rates more than estimated Populations decline faster; sustainable harvest shrinks; recovery takes longer Populations more resilient; harvest can be maintained at higher levels
Marine productivity declines more than expected under nuclear winter Fish and shellfish yields decline; coastal communities lose a key food source Marine resources remain productive; provides larger protein supplement
Ammunition stocks are smaller than estimated, or deplete faster Hunting becomes impractical sooner; trapping and non-firearm methods must scale faster Longer period of firearms-based hunting available
Social cooperation breaks down — people hunt without reporting or observing quotas Populations crash; the commons is destroyed; wild harvest is lost as a long-term resource Wild harvest is managed sustainably; populations maintained
Government fails to implement management framework in the first months Uncoordinated hunting becomes established and is difficult to transition to managed harvest Early management prevents overharvesting; sustainable harvest established from the start
Longfin eel populations decline to critical levels An irreplaceable native species is lost; a culturally significant food source is destroyed Eel populations maintained; ongoing food and cultural resource

CROSS-REFERENCES

  • Doc #1 — National Emergency Stockpile Strategy: Ammunition as a stockpile resource.
  • Doc #3 — Food Rationing and Distribution: Wild harvest integrated into national food supply framework; wild-sourced food incorporated into ration system.
  • Doc #7 — Civil Defence Activation: Coordination of emergency hunting management through CDEM structure.
  • Doc #8 — National Asset and Skills Census: Inventory of firearms, ammunition, traps, fishing equipment, and skilled hunters/fishers.
  • Doc #36 — Clothing and Footwear: Possum fur for clothing; deer hides for leather.
  • Doc #74 — Pastoral Farming Under Nuclear Winter: The primary food production system; wild harvest supplements pastoral output.
  • Doc #75 — Cropping Under Nuclear Winter: Grain and vegetable production; wild harvest supplements cropping output.
  • Doc #77 — Seed Preservation and Distribution: Seed stocks for establishing food gardens, complementary to wild plant harvest.
  • Doc #78 — Food Preservation Without Imports: Preservation methods for wild-harvested meat, fish, and plants.
  • Doc #81 — Aquaculture: Marine harvest management and shellfish farming framework.
  • Doc #81 — Aquaculture: Seaweed as a wild marine harvest; complementary marine food production.
  • Doc #91 — Machine Shop Operations: Manufacture of traps, crossbow components, fish hooks.
  • Doc #92 — Blacksmithing and Forge Work: Manufacture of traps, arrowheads, fish hooks from local steel.
  • Doc #105 — Wire and Fencing: Wire for snares and traps.
  • Doc #122 — Mental Health: Cultural and psychological value of hunting and gathering as purposeful activity.

APPENDIX A: POSSUM AS FOOD — PRACTICAL GUIDE

Possums are NZ’s most abundant and most underutilised wild food resource. Because they are universally regarded as pests, there is no cultural resistance to their harvest — and significant ecological benefit.

Field dressing: Skin immediately after killing (easier while warm). Remove gut contents, heart, liver, and kidneys (all edible if animal is healthy). Meat should be cooled quickly to prevent spoilage.

Preparation: Possum meat is lean and benefits from slow cooking. Stewing, braising, and smoking are the most suitable methods. The meat can be tough and is best when cooked low and slow. It can be minced and mixed with fattier meats (pork, mutton) for sausages or patties.

Fur processing: Possum fur should be removed as a complete pelt and either dried for later processing or sent to a processing centre. Possum-merino blending requires carding equipment but produces exceptionally warm yarn. Even without blending, possum pelts can be sewn into garments — traditional methods are straightforward and can be taught in community workshops. A possum fur vest or lining provides significant insulation, which is valuable under nuclear winter conditions.50

Food safety: Possums in NZ carry bovine tuberculosis (Tb) in some areas. The risk of Tb transmission to humans from handling and consuming possum meat is low but not zero — Tb is killed by thorough cooking (internal temperature above 75°C). Hunters should wear gloves when handling possums, particularly in known Tb areas (much of the central North Island, parts of the West Coast).51 Visually inspect the lungs and lymph nodes — animals with obvious lesions (white nodules) should not be consumed.

Yield: Expect approximately 1–2 kg of usable meat per possum, plus one pelt. An experienced trapper harvesting 20 possums per night produces 20–40 kg of meat and 20 pelts per night of work.

APPENDIX B: QUICK REFERENCE — SEASONAL HARVEST CALENDAR

This calendar provides general guidance. Actual timing varies by region and year. Local knowledge should always take precedence.

Month Deer Pigs Game birds Marine Freshwater Wild plants
Jan Open (avoid hinds with fawns) Open Closed (nesting) Open (check local rahui) Open Blackberry, watercress, puha
Feb Open Open Closed (nesting) Open Open Blackberry, watercress, puha
Mar Rut — manage harvest carefully Open Closed (brood-rearing) Open Eel migration begins — manage carefully Puha, watercress
Apr Open (post-rut; stags poor condition) Open Partial open (varies by species) Open Eel migration Pikopiko (late), watercress
May Open Open Open (duck season traditional start) Open Trout open Watercress, puha
Jun Open Open Open Open (winter storms limit access) Trout open Watercress
Jul Open Open Open Open (winter storms limit access) Trout open Watercress, puha
Aug Open Open Open (late season) Open Trout open Puha, early pikopiko
Sep Closed (fawning) Open Closed (nesting begins) Open (check spawning closures) Trout — check local restrictions Pikopiko, watercress, puha
Oct Closed (fawning) Open Closed (nesting) Open Trout open Pikopiko, watercress, puha
Nov Restricted (avoid hinds with fawns) Open Closed (nesting) Open Trout open Puha, watercress
Dec Open Open Closed (nesting) Open Open Blackberry begins, watercress, puha

Note: “Open” means harvest is permitted under quota. All harvest subject to quota limits and reporting requirements. Actual seasons should be set regionally based on local conditions.

  1. Caughley, G. (1983), The Deer Wars: The Story of Deer in New Zealand, Heinemann. Comprehensive history of NZ’s deer management, from introduction through eradication campaigns to farming and recreational hunting. The government’s deer destruction campaigns from the 1930s through the 1970s killed millions of deer but never achieved eradication — deer persisted in remote areas and populations recovered when culling pressure eased.↩︎

  2. Deer population estimates are inherently uncertain for forest-dwelling species. Figures cited in this document are compiled from DOC surveys, regional council estimates, and hunting industry assessments. The range of 210,000–300,000 reflects this uncertainty. The Game Animal Council and DOC both acknowledge that precise population estimates are not available for most areas. See: Nugent, G. et al. (2001), “Demography and management of wild deer populations in New Zealand,” in The Great Deer of New Zealand, Canterbury University Press.↩︎

  3. Challies, C.N. (1990), “The status of wild deer in New Zealand in the mid-1980s,” NZ Journal of Ecology 14:11-18. Documents the origin of NZ’s deer farming industry from wild-capture operations. By the 1980s, over 200,000 deer had been live-captured by helicopter for farming.↩︎

  4. Venison yield data from: Wiklund, E. et al. (2003), “Carcass and meat quality of farmed red deer,” Meat Science 64(2):115-122. Wild deer carcass weights vary significantly by species, age, sex, and condition. Red deer stags in good condition: 80–120 kg carcass weight, yielding 50–70 kg of usable meat. Hinds are smaller (50–80 kg carcass). Other species are generally smaller.↩︎

  5. Possum trapping productivity based on NZ possum control industry data. See: Warburton, B. and Livingstone, P. (2015), “Managing and controlling wildlife tuberculosis in New Zealand,” NZ Veterinary Journal 63(sup1):77-88. Also: National Possum Control Agencies (NPCA) guidelines. Productivity varies enormously with possum density, trap placement, bait, and trapper experience.↩︎

  6. Possum body weight and meat yield: Morgan, D.R. (2002), “Possum biocontrol: progress and prospects,” NZ Journal of Zoology 29(3):155-163. Adult possum body weight typically 2–5 kg. Usable meat yield approximately 30–40% of body weight.↩︎

  7. Rabbit harvest rates in high-density areas from: Norbury, G. and Reddiex, B. (2005), “European rabbit,” in The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press. Professional rabbiters historically achieved high daily tallies. The 20–50 per day figure applies to experienced hunters in high-density areas (Canterbury, Otago). In areas with low rabbit density, harvest rates are much lower.↩︎

  8. Shellfish gathering productivity varies enormously with species, bed density, tide conditions, and gatherer experience. The 10–20 kg per session figure is typical for productive beds. See: Ministry for Primary Industries recreational fishing surveys. Gathering rates at depleted beds can be close to zero.↩︎

  9. This estimate is approximate and based on the sustainable yield estimates in the table (Section 6.1), combined with a caloric conversion of harvested protein. The 3–8% figure should be treated as indicative, not precise.↩︎

  10. NZ deer species introductions are documented in: King, C.M. (ed.) (2005), The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press. All deer species in NZ are descended from deliberate introductions between 1851 (red deer) and 1907 (wapiti).↩︎

  11. Deer population estimates are inherently uncertain for forest-dwelling species. Figures cited in this document are compiled from DOC surveys, regional council estimates, and hunting industry assessments. The range of 210,000–300,000 reflects this uncertainty. The Game Animal Council and DOC both acknowledge that precise population estimates are not available for most areas. See: Nugent, G. et al. (2001), “Demography and management of wild deer populations in New Zealand,” in The Great Deer of New Zealand, Canterbury University Press.↩︎

  12. Sustainable harvest rate estimates from ungulate management literature. See: Caughley, G. (1977), Analysis of Vertebrate Populations, Wiley. The 10–20% figure is a general guideline for well-managed populations — actual sustainable yield depends on population structure, environmental conditions, and harvest selectivity (age and sex composition).↩︎

  13. NZ meat production figures from: Ministry for Primary Industries, Situation and Outlook for Primary Industries, various years. https://www.mpi.govt.nz/ — NZ produces approximately 600,000–700,000 tonnes of red meat (beef, lamb, venison) and approximately 200,000 tonnes of poultry per year under normal conditions.↩︎

  14. Feral pig population estimates are highly uncertain. The figure of 50,000–100,000 is an estimate based on the known distribution and density data from various regional surveys. See: McIlroy, J.C. (2005), “Feral pig,” in The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press.↩︎

  15. Pig reproductive biology: McIlroy, J.C. (1989), “Aspects of the ecology of feral pigs in the Murchison area, New Zealand,” NZ Journal of Ecology 12:11-22. Sow reproductive output depends on age, condition, and food availability. Under good conditions, two litters per year is common; under stress, one or none.↩︎

  16. Pig hunting with dogs is a well-established NZ tradition, particularly in the North Island and among rural Maori communities. The practice involves trained dogs to locate and hold the pig while the hunter despatches it with a knife. See: Potton, C. (2003), New Zealand Hunting, Craig Potton Publishing.↩︎

  17. Feral goat population estimates: Parkes, J.P. (2005), “Feral goat,” in The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press. Historical peak population was estimated at over 1 million; DOC control programmes have reduced numbers substantially in many areas.↩︎

  18. Goat milk production varies enormously by breed and management. Unselected feral goats produce far less than dairy breeds. Commercial NZ dairy goats (typically Saanen or Toggenburg) produce 3–6 litres/day at peak lactation. Feral goats are genetically unselected and will produce at the low end of the 1–3 litre range. See: Morand-Fehr, P. et al. (2004), “Strategy for goat farming in the 21st century,” Small Ruminant Research 51(2):175-183.↩︎

  19. Rabbit population density data from: Norbury, G. (2001), “Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990–2000: European rabbit,” Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 31(1):99-109. Plague densities of 40–80+ rabbits per hectare are documented in Canterbury and Otago.↩︎

  20. Protein poisoning (rabbit starvation) occurs when a diet is excessively high in lean protein and deficient in fat and carbohydrates. Rabbit meat is approximately 3–5% fat. See: Speth, J.D. and Spielmann, K.A. (1983), “Energy source, protein metabolism, and hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2(1):1-31.↩︎

  21. The commonly cited figure of 30 million possums derives from estimates in the 1980s–1990s. See: Cowan, P.E. (2005), “Brushtail possum,” in The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press. Decades of intensive 1080 poisoning and trapping have likely reduced the population, but no comprehensive re-estimate has been conducted. The actual current population may be 20–30 million.↩︎

  22. Possum body weight and meat yield: Morgan, D.R. (2002), “Possum biocontrol: progress and prospects,” NZ Journal of Zoology 29(3):155-163. Adult possum body weight typically 2–5 kg. Usable meat yield approximately 30–40% of body weight.↩︎

  23. Possum reproductive rate: Cowan, P.E. (1990), “Brushtail possum,” in The Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, 1st edition. Possums typically produce one young per year (rarely twins). This low reproductive rate, combined with high juvenile mortality, means possum populations recover slowly from reductions — which is why 1080 control works.↩︎

  24. Possum trapping productivity based on NZ possum control industry data. See: Warburton, B. and Livingstone, P. (2015), “Managing and controlling wildlife tuberculosis in New Zealand,” NZ Veterinary Journal 63(sup1):77-88. Also: National Possum Control Agencies (NPCA) guidelines. Productivity varies enormously with possum density, trap placement, bait, and trapper experience.↩︎

  25. Mallard population estimates from Fish & Game NZ surveys. See: Garrick, A. (2007), “Waterfowl harvests and population trends in New Zealand,” Department of Conservation Research & Development Series 275. Population estimates are approximate and fluctuate year to year.↩︎

  26. Paradise shelduck population estimates from: Williams, M.J. (2013), “Paradise shelduck population trends,” Fish & Game NZ. Population has increased substantially since the 1960s due to agricultural land conversion creating habitat.↩︎

  27. Canada goose population estimates for NZ are imprecise. The figure of 30,000–50,000 is based on Fish & Game NZ survey data. Canada geese are managed as a game bird and populations are actively controlled in some regions due to agricultural damage. See: Gosling, M. and Sutherland, W. (2000), Behaviour and Conservation, Cambridge University Press (general); Fish & Game NZ regional reports for NZ-specific data.↩︎

  28. Recreational fishing data from: Wynne-Jones, J. et al. (2019), “National Panel Survey of Marine Recreational Fishers 2017-2018,” NZ Fisheries Assessment Report 2019/24, Ministry for Primary Industries. Approximately 1.2 million recreational fisher-trips annually, landing an estimated 8,000–9,000 tonnes of fish.↩︎

  29. NZ’s Quota Management System (QMS) has been in operation since 1986 and covers most major commercial fish species. See: Ministry for Primary Industries, “Introduction to the Quota Management System.” https://www.mpi.govt.nz/fishing-aquaculture/fisheries-man...↩︎

  30. Longfin eel conservation status and ecology: Jellyman, D.J. (2007), “Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management initiatives,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 64(7):1379-1386. Longfin eels are classified as “declining” and are endemic to NZ. Their extraordinary longevity (some individuals over 100 years) and once-only spawning migration make them uniquely vulnerable to overharvesting.↩︎

  31. Longfin eel size: Jellyman, D.J. (2007), “Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management initiatives,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 64(7):1379-1386. Most longfin eels harvested commercially are 1–5 kg. Exceptional individuals in low-harvest environments have been recorded at 15–24 kg, but these are rare and represent decades of growth. Shortfin eels are generally smaller (0.5–3 kg).↩︎

  32. Longfin eel conservation status and ecology: Jellyman, D.J. (2007), “Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management initiatives,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 64(7):1379-1386. Longfin eels are classified as “declining” and are endemic to NZ. Their extraordinary longevity (some individuals over 100 years) and once-only spawning migration make them uniquely vulnerable to overharvesting.↩︎

  33. Puha nutritional data and traditional use: Leach, H. (2010), “Wild plant use in traditional Maori food,” in Food, Culture & Society 13(4):487-506. Also: Crowe, A. (2004), A Field Guide to the Native Edible Plants of New Zealand, Penguin.↩︎

  34. Karaka berry processing: Best, E. (1942), Forest Lore of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington. Traditional processing involves prolonged steaming in an umu and extended soaking in water to leach the toxic karakin glycoside from the kernels. Improper processing causes severe convulsions.↩︎

  35. Cabbage tree as food: Simpson, P. (2000), Dancing Leaves: The Story of New Zealand’s Cabbage Tree, Canterbury University Press. The roots and inner stem contain starch that is converted to sugar by slow cooking (24–48 hours in a hangi/umu).↩︎

  36. Hemlock toxicity and identification: Connor, H.E. (1977), The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand, DSIR Bulletin 99. Hemlock (Conium maculatum) is present throughout NZ and is one of the most toxic plants in the country. All parts are dangerous.↩︎

  37. Tutu toxicity: Connor, H.E. (1977), The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand, DSIR Bulletin 99. Tutin, the toxic glycoside, is present in all parts of the plant except the fleshy part of the fruit. Tutu poisoning has killed livestock and humans in NZ. Tutu honey is also a risk — bees can produce toxic honey from tutu-contaminated honeydew.↩︎

  38. Caughley, G. (1983), The Deer Wars: The Story of Deer in New Zealand, Heinemann. Comprehensive history of NZ’s deer management, from introduction through eradication campaigns to farming and recreational hunting. The government’s deer destruction campaigns from the 1930s through the 1970s killed millions of deer but never achieved eradication — deer persisted in remote areas and populations recovered when culling pressure eased.↩︎

  39. NZ has no significant domestic ammunition manufacturing. Virtually all commercial ammunition is imported. Some component assembly and reloading supply production exists at small scale. See: NZ Police firearms facts and figures. https://www.police.govt.nz/about-us/publication/firearms-...↩︎

  40. NZ firearms statistics from NZ Police. As of 2023, approximately 245,000 licensed firearms holders and an estimated 1.2 million firearms (estimate from the 2017 select committee inquiry into firearms; actual numbers are uncertain because most firearms are not individually registered). https://www.police.govt.nz/↩︎

  41. Primer manufacture: primers contain a primary explosive (historically mercury fulminate; modern primers use lead styphnate, barium nitrate, and antimony sulfide). These compounds require specific chemical precursors and precise manufacture. While not impossible to produce locally, primer quality directly affects ignition reliability. See any ammunition reloading reference, e.g.: Lyman, Lyman Reloading Handbook, various editions.↩︎

  42. Traditional Maori eel harvesting: Best, E. (1929), Fishing Methods and Devices of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington. Describes hinaki (eel pots), pa tuna (eel weirs), and other traditional methods in detail. Also: Downes, T.W. (1918), “Notes on eels and eel-weirs,” Transactions and Proceedings of the NZ Institute 50:296-316.↩︎

  43. Traditional Maori eel harvesting: Best, E. (1929), Fishing Methods and Devices of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington. Describes hinaki (eel pots), pa tuna (eel weirs), and other traditional methods in detail. Also: Downes, T.W. (1918), “Notes on eels and eel-weirs,” Transactions and Proceedings of the NZ Institute 50:296-316.↩︎

  44. Rahui as a management tool: McCarthy, A. et al. (2014), “Rahui — a review of its application and use in Aotearoa New Zealand marine management,” Marine Policy 50:272-278. Rahui has been used traditionally and is increasingly recognised by regional councils and the Ministry for Primary Industries as a legitimate fisheries management tool.↩︎

  45. Maramataka (Maori lunar calendar): Roberts, M. et al. (2006), “Whakapapa as a Maori mental construct: Some implications for the debate over genetic modification of organisms,” The Contemporary Pacific 18(1):1-31. The maramataka encodes environmental observation accumulated over centuries, including optimal timing for fishing, planting, and harvesting. See also: Matamua, R. (2017), Matariki: The Star of the Year, Huia Publishers.↩︎

  46. Traditional Maori eel harvesting: Best, E. (1929), Fishing Methods and Devices of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington. Describes hinaki (eel pots), pa tuna (eel weirs), and other traditional methods in detail. Also: Downes, T.W. (1918), “Notes on eels and eel-weirs,” Transactions and Proceedings of the NZ Institute 50:296-316.↩︎

  47. Pig hunting with dogs is a well-established NZ tradition, particularly in the North Island and among rural Maori communities. The practice involves trained dogs to locate and hold the pig while the hunter despatches it with a knife. See: Potton, C. (2003), New Zealand Hunting, Craig Potton Publishing.↩︎

  48. NZ population approximately 5.2 million (Stats NZ, 2024). Daily caloric requirement based on standard nutritional guidelines of approximately 2,000–2,300 kcal per person per day for a mixed population (lower for children, higher for manual labourers).↩︎

  49. NZ firearms statistics from NZ Police. As of 2023, approximately 245,000 licensed firearms holders and an estimated 1.2 million firearms (estimate from the 2017 select committee inquiry into firearms; actual numbers are uncertain because most firearms are not individually registered). https://www.police.govt.nz/↩︎

  50. Possum fur properties and textile use: Possum fur is hollow-fibred, with excellent thermal properties. See: Prendergast, K. (2004), “Possum fibre — a novel textile material,” NZ Journal of Forestry 49(1):11-14. The NZ possum fur industry exports approximately NZ$100 million per year in fur and fibre products under normal conditions.↩︎

  51. Bovine tuberculosis in NZ possums: Livingstone, P.G. et al. (2015), “Toward eradication: the effect of Mycobacterium bovis infection in wildlife on the evolution and future direction of bovine tuberculosis management in New Zealand,” NZ Veterinary Journal 63(sup1):4-8. Prevalence in possum populations varies by region — highest in known Tb vector areas.↩︎

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