Doc #136 — NZ Port Operations

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RECOMMENDED ACTIONS (BY URGENCY)

First week:

1. Assess all port infrastructure for physical damage from any seismic, tsunami, or civil disruption associated with the event
2. Secure fuel stocks at all port bunkering facilities under central allocation (Doc #53)
3. Instruct all harbor masters and port pilots to continue operations under existing procedures

First month:

4. Conduct port-by-port infrastructure audit: crane serviceability, wharf condition, channel depths, fuel reserves, spare parts inventory, navigation aid status
5. Designate Tier 1 and Tier 2 ports (see Section 4) and communicate priorities to national logistics command
6. Begin cross-training crane operators and port workers in break-bulk cargo handling (Section 5.3)
7. Secure all port-held spare parts for cranes, forklifts, pilot boats, and tug boats — centralize inventory data
8. Identify all harbor pilots, tug masters, and harbor masters through the skills census (Doc #8) — their knowledge is irreplaceable

First year:

9. Transition Tier 2 ports to break-bulk operations; redeploy container cranes’ spare parts to maintain Tier 1 cranes
10. Begin modifying wharf infrastructure for multi-use cargo handling (see Section 5.4)
11. Commission fabrication of simple cargo-handling equipment (derricks, shear legs, chain hoists) from NZ steel (Doc #89) and machine shop capability (Doc #91)
12. Establish scheduled coastal shipping routes between Tier 1 ports using remaining powered vessels while fuel permits
13. Begin harbor pilot training program for the next generation

Years 2–5:

14. Transition remaining powered port equipment to electric drive where feasible (grid power available)
15. Adapt port layouts to accommodate sailing vessels alongside powered vessels
16. Reduce dredging-dependent channel maintenance; where necessary, relocate berths to naturally deep water
17. Begin construction of sailing lighters and harbor craft for cargo transfer (Doc #138)

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ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION

What ports cost to maintain

A major NZ port employs approximately 200–500 workers directly (stevedores, crane operators, pilots, maintenance staff, administration), with several hundred more in port-dependent services (trucking, warehousing, marine services).² Under recovery conditions, the direct workforce is the relevant figure. Maintaining a fully operational major port consumes approximately 300–500 person-years of labor annually.

NZ cannot maintain thirteen commercial ports at full operational capability. The labor, spare parts, and fuel required to keep every port operating as it did pre-event would consume resources better deployed elsewhere. The economic question is: how many ports does NZ need, which ones, and at what level of capability?

What ports produce

Every tonne of cargo that moves by sea between NZ ports — and eventually between NZ and Australia — passes through port infrastructure. Coastal shipping is the most energy-efficient bulk transport mode NZ has: a coastal vessel carrying 2,000–5,000 tonnes of cargo per voyage replaces hundreds of truck movements.³ As road transport fuel depletes, coastal shipping becomes not a convenience but a necessity for moving bulk goods (timber, steel, cement, fertilizer, food) between regions.

For international trade, ports are the sole interface. NZ’s most critical import needs under isolation — copper, tin, sulfur, specialist chemicals, some pharmaceuticals, machinery components — can only arrive by sea (Doc #109). NZ’s most valuable exports — food, aluminum, timber products, fiber — can only leave by sea. Without functional ports, NZ has no trade.

Breakeven assessment

The question is not whether to maintain ports — NZ must — but how to allocate scarce resources across the port network. Concentrating capability at 4–5 major ports rather than spreading it across thirteen means each maintained port operates more reliably, spare parts last longer, and the specialist workforce is concentrated where it is most productive. The labor saved by reducing operations at smaller ports (estimated 500–1,500 person-years annually across the reduced network) is redeployed to agriculture, manufacturing, and other critical recovery activities.

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1. NZ’S PORT INFRASTRUCTURE: CURRENT STATE

1.1 The port network

NZ has thirteen significant commercial ports, each operated by a regional port company.⁴ They handle a combined approximately 50 million tonnes of cargo annually under normal conditions. Key ports by throughput:

Port	Location	Annual throughput (approx.)	Primary cargo	Strategic role
Tauranga (Port of Tauranga)	Bay of Plenty, North Island	~27 million tonnes	Containers, logs, kiwifruit	NZ’s largest port by volume
Auckland (Ports of Auckland)	Waitemata Harbour, North Island	~10 million tonnes	Containers, vehicles, fuel	Largest city’s port; import-dominated
Lyttelton (Lyttelton Port Company)	Canterbury, South Island	~5 million tonnes	Containers, coal, fuel	Canterbury/Christchurch primary port
Napier (Napier Port)	Hawke’s Bay, North Island	~4 million tonnes	Logs, fruit, containers	Agricultural export hub
New Plymouth (Port Taranaki)	Taranaki, North Island	~2 million tonnes	Fuel, petrochemicals, logs	Energy sector port
Wellington (CentrePort)	Wellington Harbour	~4 million tonnes	Containers, vehicles, inter-island	Capital city; Cook Strait hub
Nelson (Port Nelson)	Tasman Bay, South Island	~3 million tonnes	Seafood, horticulture, forestry	Top of the South Island
Port Chalmers (Port Otago)	Otago Harbour, South Island	~4 million tonnes	Containers, dairy	Deep-water South Island port
Bluff (South Port)	Southland, South Island	~3 million tonnes	Aluminium, dairy, logs	Southernmost port; aluminium export

Other commercial ports include Whangarei (oil refinery), Gisborne, Timaru, and Westport/Greymouth (West Coast coal).⁵

Throughput figures are approximate and based on pre-event published port company data. They fluctuate year to year and the figures above are estimates intended to convey relative scale, not precise volumes.

1.2 What the ports depend on

Every NZ port relies on the same set of imported dependencies:

Container cranes (ship-to-shore gantry cranes): NZ’s major container ports (Tauranga, Auckland, Lyttelton, Port Chalmers, Napier, Wellington) operate large gantry cranes — typically Liebherr, ZPMC, or Paceco units.⁶ These cranes are imported as complete units, assembled on-site, and depend on imported spare parts for ongoing maintenance: electrical drives, control systems (PLCs, VFDs), wire rope, sheaves, brakes, and structural fasteners. NZ does not manufacture container cranes and cannot build replacements. Existing cranes have a service life of 25–40 years with maintenance, but without imported spare parts, operational life may be significantly shorter — control electronics are the most vulnerable component, with an estimated 5–15 years before failures that NZ cannot repair begin to accumulate.⁷

Dredging: Several NZ ports require maintenance dredging to sustain their commercial depths. Lyttelton, Tauranga, Napier, Bluff, Port Chalmers, and Auckland all dredge their approach channels and berth pockets. NZ has limited dredging capacity — a small number of dredge vessels, all dependent on diesel fuel and imported components. Without dredging, these ports will gradually silt, reducing available depth and limiting the draught of vessels that can access them.⁸

Pilot boats and tugs: Port pilots travel to incoming vessels by pilot boat. Tugs assist large vessels in maneuvering within the harbor. Both are diesel-powered vessels requiring fuel and maintenance.⁹ Smaller sailing and unpowered vessels will not require tug assistance, reducing this dependency as the fleet transitions.

Forklifts and straddle carriers: Container terminals use large forklifts, straddle carriers, and reach stackers to move containers within the terminal. These are imported, diesel-or-electric-powered machines. Failure of these machines does not prevent cargo handling — it prevents containerized cargo handling at modern speeds.

Electronic systems: Port management systems, vessel tracking, communications, and billing are all software-dependent. These systems simplify administration but are not essential for physical port operations. Ports operated for centuries with paper-based manifests, visual signaling, and manual coordination.

1.3 What the ports do not depend on

Wharves and breakwaters: These are concrete and steel structures with service lives measured in decades to a century with basic maintenance. NZ can produce both concrete (Doc #97) and steel (Doc #89). Wharf maintenance — replacing timber fendering, patching concrete, replacing corroded bollards — is within NZ’s domestic capability indefinitely.

Harbor depth (natural): Several NZ ports have naturally deep harbors that do not require dredging. Port Chalmers, Wellington, Auckland (inner harbor), and Nelson have natural depths sufficient for coastal and medium-sized vessels without ongoing dredging. This is a critical factor in port triage decisions.

Electrical grid: Under baseline assumptions, NZ’s grid continues operating. Ports connected to the grid can run electric cranes, lighting, workshops, and pumps indefinitely — provided the equipment itself survives. Grid power is a major NZ advantage; most ports worldwide depend on diesel generators.

Skilled maritime workers: NZ has harbor pilots, tug masters, stevedores, crane operators, marine engineers, and harbor masters. This workforce is the most valuable port asset, more important than any piece of equipment. Their knowledge of local harbor conditions, vessel handling, and cargo operations is essential and takes years to develop.

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2. THE CARGO TRANSITION: CONTAINERS TO BREAK-BULK TO SAIL CARGO

2.1 Why container shipping ends

The global container shipping system depends on: large container ships (built in South Korea, China, and Japan), diesel fuel (from globally traded petroleum), container cranes at both origin and destination, and a network of container manufacturing and repair facilities (almost entirely in China).¹⁰ All of these cease under the scenario. No new container ships will be built. No new containers will be manufactured. Fuel for existing container ships depletes within months of the last deliveries.

NZ’s container handling infrastructure was designed for this system. When the system stops, the infrastructure does not become useless — the cranes can still lift things, the wharves can still berth vessels — but it becomes increasingly mismatched to the cargo it needs to handle.

2.2 The three phases of port cargo handling

Phase 1 (Months 0–12): Existing systems, declining containers. Early on, NZ ports continue operating as they were — unloading any vessels that arrive (which may include ships already in transit at the time of the event), redistributing domestic stocks by coastal shipping, and managing the national stockpile logistics (Doc #1). Container cranes handle whatever comes. Port operations are familiar. The main changes are fuel rationing for port equipment and reallocation of port labor to stockpile management.

Phase 2 (Years 1–5): Break-bulk transition. As container shipping ceases and coastal redistribution shifts to whatever vessels are available (coastal freighters, converted fishing vessels, barges), cargo increasingly arrives as break-bulk — individual pallets, crates, bags, drums, and loose items loaded directly into cargo holds rather than in containers. Break-bulk handling is substantially slower than container handling — a modern container crane can move 25–30 containers per hour (roughly 500–750 tonnes), whereas a break-bulk gang using ship’s derricks and shore cranes typically handles 10–30 tonnes per hour, a throughput reduction of 90–95%.¹¹ But break-bulk requires far simpler equipment: ship’s derricks, shore-based cranes (including mobile cranes), forklifts, and human labor. NZ ports handled break-bulk cargo as recently as the 1970s–80s before containerization became dominant.¹² Older port workers may remember break-bulk operations; younger ones will need training.

Phase 3 (Years 5+): Sail cargo. As sailing vessels enter service (Doc #138, Doc #141), ports must accommodate vessels with very different characteristics than powered ships: they arrive when wind permits rather than on schedule, they need different berth layouts (alongside wharves rather than container berths), they carry smaller cargo volumes (10–100 tonnes rather than thousands), and they may need anchorage rather than berths during wind-waiting.¹³ The port’s role shifts from high-throughput container terminal to something closer to a traditional harbor: receiving vessels, providing safe berths, facilitating cargo transfer by simple means, and maintaining navigational safety.

2.3 What this means for port infrastructure

The transition is fundamentally one of simplification. Container terminals are the most complex, capital-intensive form of port infrastructure. Break-bulk operations are simpler. Sail cargo handling is simpler still — a wooden sailing vessel can be unloaded with the ship’s own derrick, a draught horse (Clydesdale or Percheron — both breeds present in NZ) and cart, and a gang of stevedores. The direction of change reduces NZ’s dependency on imported equipment and increases its reliance on skills, local fabrication, and labor — all of which NZ can sustain.

As formal hydrographic records become harder to update, traditional harbor knowledge becomes a practical supplement. Many NZ harbor place names in te reo Maori encode navigational information — references to currents (au), rocks (toka), harbors (whanga), and winds — that is relevant to pilotage and harbor approaches.¹⁴ This knowledge, preserved in oral tradition and local place names, should be documented in the coastal pilot (Doc #13) alongside formal chart data, particularly for harbors where dredging changes or navigation aid failure makes current charts unreliable.

The risk is the transition period, when NZ still needs container-era equipment for coastal redistribution and the first international trade, but that equipment is failing. Managing this transition — keeping critical equipment running long enough to bridge to simpler alternatives — is the central challenge.

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3. PORT PRIORITIZATION (TRIAGE)

3.1 The case for triage

NZ cannot maintain all thirteen commercial ports at current operational levels. The constraint is not wharfage or harbor space — it is crane spare parts, dredging fuel, pilot boats, and specialist maintenance labor. Concentrating these scarce resources at a smaller number of strategic ports keeps those ports operational longer and at higher reliability.

This is a politically difficult decision. Every port serves a region, and every region will argue that its port is essential. The triage framework must be transparent and based on objective criteria.

3.2 Triage criteria

1. Natural harbor depth. Ports that do not require maintenance dredging can operate indefinitely. Ports dependent on dredging face a ticking clock.
2. Geographic coverage. NZ needs at least one operational major port on each coast of each island to avoid long overland transport. Geographic distribution matters.
3. Existing infrastructure condition. A port with newer, better-maintained cranes and wharves survives longer without imported parts than one already approaching end-of-life.
4. Hinterland connections. A port connected by good road and (while operational) rail to productive agricultural and industrial regions serves more of the country.
5. Shelter and all-weather access. Ports that can operate in bad weather and provide safe berths in all conditions are more reliable.
6. Proximity to trade routes. For trans-Tasman trade, ports on the west or north coasts of NZ have shorter passages to Australia.
7. Industrial co-location. Ports near major industrial facilities (NZ Steel at Glenbrook/Auckland, Tiwai Point smelter at Bluff, engineering workshops) serve dual purposes.

3.3 Recommended port tiers

Tier 1 — Full operational capability (maintain as long as possible):

Port	Justification
Tauranga	NZ’s largest port, excellent natural harbor, good depth (approaches dredged but berths are naturally deep), serves the Waikato/Bay of Plenty agricultural and industrial hinterland, faces north toward Pacific trade
Auckland	Largest city, naturally deep inner harbor, co-located with engineering and manufacturing, naval dockyard, critical population center
Lyttelton	Canterbury/South Island primary port, naturally sheltered volcanic harbor, rail and road tunnel to Christchurch, serves the Canterbury Plains (NZ’s largest arable region)
Port Chalmers	Deep-water South Island port (naturally deep — limited dredging needed), serves Otago and Southland agricultural regions
Wellington	Capital city, naturally deep harbor, Cook Strait hub for inter-island trade, government and logistics coordination center

Tier 2 — Maintained at reduced capability (break-bulk and sail cargo):

Port	Justification
Nelson	Top of the South Island, serves Tasman/Marlborough, horticulture and seafood, naturally sheltered
New Plymouth	West coast North Island, Taranaki industrial base, closer to Australia for Tasman trade
Napier	East coast North Island, agricultural export region, but dredging-dependent
Bluff	Southernmost port, serves Southland agriculture and Tiwai Point aluminium smelter, but dredging-dependent

Tier 3 — Simplified to basic harbor operations (anchorage, small vessel access, fishing fleet):

Gisborne, Timaru, Whangarei, Westport/Greymouth, and other minor ports. These remain useful as anchorages, fishing ports, and for small coastal traders, but do not receive scarce crane or dredging resources.

3.4 What “reduced capability” means

A Tier 2 port retains: functional wharves, navigational safety (harbor master, navigation aids where possible, local pilot knowledge), basic cargo handling (mobile cranes, ship’s gear, manual labor), and wharf maintenance capability. It does not retain: container gantry cranes, straddle carriers, or maintenance dredging. The port handles break-bulk and sail cargo. Large vessels that require deep dredged channels may not be able to access Tier 2 ports as silting progresses.

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4. CRANE AND CARGO HANDLING ADAPTATION

4.1 Extending container crane life

NZ’s container gantry cranes are the most complex, highest-value port equipment and the hardest to replace. Each crane represents an investment of $10–30 million (pre-event) and weighs 800–1,500 tonnes.¹⁵ The priority for Tier 1 ports is extending crane operational life as long as possible.

Spare parts cannibalization: NZ has approximately 20–25 container gantry cranes across all ports.¹⁶ If Tier 2 and Tier 3 ports’ cranes are decommissioned and their spare parts, electrical components, and wire rope recovered, this increases the spare parts pool for the remaining Tier 1 cranes by an estimated 50–100%, depending on compatibility between crane models and the condition of recovered components. A crane that might last 8–12 years on its own spare parts inventory might last 12–20 years with pooled spares from decommissioned units — the range reflects uncertainty about component interchangeability between different crane manufacturers (Liebherr, ZPMC, Paceco).

Control system simplification: Modern cranes use programmable logic controllers (PLCs), variable frequency drives (VFDs), and computerized monitoring. When these electronics fail, replacement is impossible. However, the underlying crane mechanism — steel structure, wire rope, electric motors, gearing — can be operated with simplified controls. Crane electrical systems can potentially be rewired with simpler relay-based controls, trading automation and safety interlocks for continued basic operation. This requires electrical engineering expertise (available in NZ) and acceptance of reduced operational speed and safety margins.¹⁷

Wire rope replacement: Crane hoist rope is a high-wear item requiring periodic replacement. NZ’s wire rope manufacturing capability is rated [C] Difficult (Doc #52) — the equipment for stranding and closing multi-strand wire rope is specialized. However, crane wire rope typically has a service life of 2–5 years depending on duty cycle, and NZ ports hold spare rope stocks. Over the medium term (5–15 years), wire rope replacement becomes a binding constraint. Alternative lifting systems — chain hoists, hemp or harakeke (NZ flax) rope through block-and-tackle arrangements — are possible for lighter loads but cannot match wire rope performance: harakeke rope has a breaking strength of approximately 30–50% of equivalent-diameter wire rope, degrades with UV exposure and moisture, and stretches significantly under load, limiting precision lifting.¹⁸ These alternatives are practical for loads under 2–5 tonnes but cannot serve for heavy container-crane-class lifting.

4.2 Break-bulk handling alternatives

When container cranes eventually fail or are no longer needed, cargo handling reverts to methods that were standard worldwide before the 1960s:

Ship’s derricks: Many non-containerized vessels (bulk carriers, general cargo ships, fishing vessels) carry their own derricks — mast-mounted cranes capable of lifting cargo from the hold to the wharf. For new sailing cargo vessels (Doc #138), designing-in cargo-handling derricks is recommended. A ship’s derrick handling 1–5 tonnes is within NZ fabrication capability: a steel or timber boom, wire rope or chain falls, a winch or manual purchase.¹⁹

Shore-based mobile cranes: NZ has a fleet of mobile cranes (truck-mounted and crawler cranes) used in construction and industry. These can handle break-bulk cargo at wharves. Capacity ranges from 10 to 300+ tonnes for the largest units. Mobile crane availability depends on fuel (for transport to the port) and maintenance, but the machines are more versatile and simpler than gantry cranes, and spare parts are more standardized.²⁰

Shear legs and derrick cranes: A shear legs (two or three inclined timber or steel beams forming an A-frame, with chain or rope hoisting tackle) is the oldest form of heavy lifting equipment. NZ can build shear legs from NZ Steel structural sections (Doc #89), NZ-grown heavy timber (radiata pine or native hardwood), and wire rope or chain — the dependency chain is: steel beams or timber legs, bolted or welded apex connection, guy wires (wire rope from existing stock or chain), foundation anchors (concrete pads or driven steel piles), and hoisting tackle (chain hoist or block-and-tackle with wire rope). All components are within NZ’s domestic supply. A well-built pair of steel shear legs can lift 20–50+ tonnes. These were used in NZ ports through the mid-20th century and in shipyards worldwide for centuries.²¹ Fabrication requires a competent engineering workshop (Doc #91), not a crane manufacturer.

Chain hoists and block-and-tackle: For loads under 5 tonnes — which covers most break-bulk and sail cargo items — a chain hoist (chain block) suspended from a beam, frame, or wharf crane provides reliable, controllable lifting. NZ holds significant stocks of chain hoists in industrial and construction suppliers. For long-term supply, chain hoists are relatively simple mechanisms (steel chain, toothed gear, ratchet, hook) that are within NZ foundry and machine shop capability to fabricate.²²

Manual labor: For small cargo items — sacks, drums, crates — stevedores loading and unloading by hand, with gangplanks and handcarts, is the oldest and most reliable method. It is slow but requires no equipment that can fail. A gang of 10–15 stevedores can unload a 50-tonne sailing cargo vessel in 1–3 days depending on cargo type and stowage.²³

Rollers, levers, and organized labor for beaching and hauling vessels: Traditional techniques for landing large waka (including waka taua of 25+ metres) on beaches and in harbors used rollers, levers, and coordinated gangs to move heavy loads without mechanical equipment. These methods are directly applicable to handling sailing vessels and cargo at simplified port facilities — particularly at Tier 2 and Tier 3 ports where crane infrastructure is unavailable and vessels may be beached or hauled for maintenance and cargo transfer.

4.3 Wharf adaptation for mixed vessel types

Current NZ container wharves are designed for large, deep-draught vessels berthing alongside high-freeboard quay walls. Sailing cargo vessels (Doc #138) are smaller, shallower-draught, lower-freeboard, and may berth alongside, at anchor with lighters, or dried out on tidal flats.

Practical adaptations:

• Floating pontoons or timber stagings alongside wharves allow smaller vessels to berth at a height appropriate for cargo handling over the rail, rather than being dwarfed against a high quay wall
• Designated sailing vessel berths separate from powered vessel operations, in naturally deep water close to the wharf, with shore access for carts and hand trucks
• Anchorage areas for vessels waiting for berths, wind, tide, or cargo — sailing vessels cannot hold a schedule and may need to anchor for days
• Lighter service — small boats or barges that carry cargo from an anchored vessel to the wharf — reduces the need for alongside berths and is historically how most cargo was handled in busy harbors

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5. FUEL BUNKERING AND THE TRANSITION FROM DIESEL TO SAIL

5.1 Current fuel infrastructure

NZ ports store and distribute marine diesel and heavy fuel oil (HFO) through bunkering facilities — fuel farms, pipelines, and bunkering barges. Major bunkering facilities exist at Auckland, Tauranga, Lyttelton, and Wellington. Whangarei (Marsden Point) serves as the primary fuel import terminal, connected to Auckland by the Refining NZ pipeline (now used for refined product distribution following the refinery’s conversion to an import terminal in 2022). New Plymouth (Port Taranaki) handles fuel and petrochemical imports separately.²⁴

5.2 Fuel depletion timeline

NZ’s total refined fuel stock at any time is approximately 90 days of peacetime consumption (mandatory minimum stockholding requirement).²⁵ Under emergency rationing (Doc #53), marine fuel allocation will be drastically reduced. Coastal shipping will receive a fuel allocation for essential redistribution; international vessels in transit will consume their own bunkers; port equipment (cranes, tugs, pilot boats) will receive a modest allocation for operations.

Marine fuel depletion for port operations depends on allocation decisions, but a reasonable estimate is that port equipment can operate at reduced levels for 2–5 years under stringent rationing. After that, all port equipment must either run on electricity (where connected to the grid) or alternative fuels (wood gas — Doc #56; biodiesel — Doc #57), or be replaced by non-powered alternatives.

5.3 Electrification where possible

NZ’s functioning electrical grid is the critical advantage for port operations. Container gantry cranes are already electrically powered (connected to shore power via trailing cables). Other equipment can be transitioned:

• Electric forklifts already exist in NZ (several NZ ports have electric or hybrid forklifts). Electric forklift stocks should be prioritized to Tier 1 ports.
• Electric capstans and winches for warping vessels alongside and cargo handling can be built from electric motors and gearing — within NZ manufacturing capability (Doc #95, Doc #91)
• Workshop equipment (lathes, grinders, welding sets) at port workshops already run on grid power
• Lighting is grid-powered at all NZ ports

What cannot be electrified without major engineering: Tugs, pilot boats, and dredges — all of which are marine diesel vessels requiring mobility. Electric tugs exist internationally but NZ does not have them. Converting a diesel tug to electric propulsion requires battery banks or trailing shore-power cables (limiting range), motor replacement, and electrical engineering — a project of 6–18 months per vessel with uncertain performance outcomes, since battery-electric tugs have significantly less range and bollard pull than diesel equivalents.²⁶ Pilot boats could potentially be replaced with sailing pilot cutters — historically, harbor pilots operated from sailing vessels everywhere in the world until the early 20th century.²⁷

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6. PILOT AND HARBOR MASTER OPERATIONS

6.1 Why pilotage matters

A harbor pilot is a local navigation specialist who boards incoming vessels and guides them through the port’s approach channel, past hazards, and to a berth. Pilotage is compulsory in all NZ commercial ports under the Maritime Transport Act 1994.²⁸ The pilot’s knowledge — of local currents, shoals, wind effects, berth limitations, and vessel handling in confined waters — takes years to acquire and cannot be replaced by written instructions alone. The coastal pilot (Doc #13) provides static reference information; a human pilot provides real-time judgment.

6.2 Maintaining pilotage services

NZ has approximately 30–50 harbor pilots nationally across all ports.²⁹ These are senior mariners with extensive sea and port experience. Under triage, Tier 1 ports retain dedicated pilots; Tier 2 ports may share pilots or rely on the harbor master for pilotage duties.

Pilot access to vessels: Currently, pilots board inbound vessels from powered pilot boats. As pilot boat fuel depletes, alternatives include:

• Sailing pilot cutters — purpose-built sailing vessels stationed outside the port approaches. Historically standard worldwide. NZ’s existing yacht fleet includes suitable vessels that could serve this role with minor modification.³⁰
• Pilots boarding at anchorage — the vessel anchors outside the harbor and a pilot rows or sails out in a small boat. Slower but functional.
• For smaller sailing cargo vessels, compulsory pilotage may be relaxed. A vessel drawing 2–3 metres with a master who has local experience may not need a pilot, particularly in well-marked harbors. The harbor master can make this determination case by case.

6.3 Harbor master functions

The harbor master is the port’s navigational safety authority — responsible for vessel traffic management, channel maintenance, navigation aids, anchoring regulations, and emergency response. These functions continue regardless of the vessels’ motive power.

Under recovery conditions, the harbor master’s role expands to include:

• Depth monitoring. Without maintenance dredging, berth and channel depths change. Regular sounding (using a lead line — the oldest depth measurement tool, requiring no technology) is essential. Harbor masters must maintain current depth information and communicate it to arriving vessels.
• Navigation aid maintenance. Powered navigation aids (lights, lit buoys) will fail as batteries and electronics degrade. The harbor master must identify when aids fail and either repair them (if possible), replace them with simpler alternatives (painted marks, unlighted beacons, topmarks), or amend the pilotage directions to reference natural marks only.
• Vessel traffic management. As vessel types diversify (powered coastal freighters, converted fishing vessels, sailing cargo vessels, barges, lighters), the harbor master coordinates berth allocation, anchorage, and movement priorities. This is a more complex management task than modern vessel traffic services handle, because vessel capabilities vary enormously — a sailing vessel cannot hold station or maneuver on demand the way a powered vessel can.³¹
• Weather advisory. Sailing vessel departures and arrivals depend on weather. The harbor master provides local weather observation and advice to vessel masters. NZ’s MetService may continue to provide forecasts (weather observation stations are grid-powered), but local observation by the harbor master supplements any formal forecast service. Traditional knowledge of tidal patterns, weather signs, and seasonal conditions in NZ waters — held by experienced local fishermen, kaumatua (elders), and coastal communities — is practically valuable for harbor operations and vessel scheduling, particularly as formal forecasting capability may degrade over time.

6.4 Training the next generation

NZ’s current harbor pilots and harbor masters are experienced professionals, but their numbers are small and they will eventually retire or be unable to continue. A training pipeline must begin within the first 1–2 years:

• Pilot trainees selected from experienced coastal mariners — fishing vessel skippers, yacht delivery skippers, inter-island ferry officers. These individuals already have vessel handling skills; they need local port knowledge and pilotage-specific training.
• Training method: Apprenticeship under experienced pilots, with progressive responsibility. A trainee pilot might serve 1–2 years as an assistant pilot before handling vessels independently.
• Documentation: Each port’s pilotage knowledge — approach procedures, hazards, tidal quirks, berth characteristics — should be written down in detail as part of the coastal pilot (Doc #13). This captures institutional knowledge that currently exists primarily in the heads of experienced pilots.

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7. DREDGING AND CHANNEL MAINTENANCE

7.1 Which ports depend on dredging

Not all NZ ports require maintenance dredging. The critical distinction:

Naturally deep (minimal dredging needed): - Auckland (Waitemata) — inner harbor naturally deep; approaches adequate for most vessels - Wellington — naturally deep enclosed harbor - Port Chalmers — naturally deep berths in the upper harbor; lower harbor channel is dredged but vessels can lighten and access inner berths - Nelson — adequate natural depth for medium vessels

Dredging-dependent: - Tauranga — approach channel dredged to 14.5 m; natural depth significantly less³² - Lyttelton — berth pockets dredged; inner harbor shallows to the west - Napier — port basin dredged; siltation is an ongoing issue - Bluff — approach channel dredged to approximately 7–8 m; natural depth less³³ - Whangarei — long harbor channel, dredging required

7.2 Silting rates and timeline

Silting rates vary by port and are site-specific. Published dredging volumes provide a rough guide:³⁴

• Tauranga: approximately 300,000–500,000 m^3 dredged annually
• Lyttelton: approximately 200,000–400,000 m^3 annually
• Napier: approximately 100,000–200,000 m^3 annually
• Bluff: approximately 50,000–150,000 m^3 annually

Without dredging, berth depths reduce gradually — not overnight. A port that currently maintains 12 m depth might lose 0.3–1.0 m per year depending on siltation conditions.³⁵ This means dredging-dependent ports have years, not months, before depth becomes critical — but the trend is one-directional unless dredging resumes.

For sailing cargo vessels drawing 2–3 metres (Doc #138), the depth constraints are much less binding. Even a port that has silted from 12 m to 5 m is still accessible to most sailing cargo vessels. The dredging problem is primarily relevant for large powered vessels during the early transition period.

7.3 Alternatives to capital dredging

Warping and kedging: Vessels can use these techniques to access berths at high tide and sit on the bottom (dry out) at low tide, provided the bottom is suitable (mud or sand, not rock) and the vessel is designed for it. Flat-bottomed sailing vessels (see the Thames barge type in Doc #138) are specifically designed for this.³⁶

Relocating operations to naturally deep water: Some dredging-dependent ports have naturally deep areas (often further from shore or at different wharves) that can accommodate vessels without dredging. Reconfiguring cargo handling to use these areas, with lighter service to existing wharves, may be more practical than maintaining dredging.

Small-scale dredging: A barge-mounted grab crane (operable on grid power via a shore cable) can perform limited maintenance dredging of berth pockets and critical channel sections. A grab crane dredging operation typically removes 50–200 m^3 per day — orders of magnitude less than a purpose-built trailing suction hopper dredge (which can remove 5,000–20,000 m^3 per day), making it suitable only for localised berth pocket maintenance, not channel-scale dredging.³⁷ NZ has engineering capability to fabricate this type of equipment from NZ steel (Doc #89) and existing crane components.

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8. CRITICAL UNCERTAINTIES

Uncertainty	Impact	Mitigation
Container crane electronic component lifespan without imported spares	Determines how long container-era cargo handling persists	Spare parts cannibalization from decommissioned cranes; control system simplification
Siltation rates at dredging-dependent ports	Determines depth reduction timeline and vessel access	Regular sounding; relocate operations to naturally deep water; design for shallower-draught vessels
Coastal shipping vessel availability	Determines how much cargo can move between ports in Phase 1–2	Audit all NZ commercial vessels; allocate fuel for coastal shipping; convert fishing vessels for cargo
Harbor pilot workforce attrition	If pilots retire or become unavailable, port safety degrades	Immediate training program; comprehensive documentation of pilotage knowledge
Fuel allocation to port operations	Insufficient fuel means cranes, tugs, pilot boats stop sooner	Electrification of land-side equipment; sailing pilot cutters; prioritize fuel to highest-value port operations
Political resistance to port triage	Regions may resist downgrading their port, diverting resources from optimal allocation	Transparent criteria; early communication; demonstrate that Tier 2/3 ports remain operational for appropriate vessel types
Seismic damage to port infrastructure	Wellington, Lyttelton, and Napier ports are in seismically active zones	Post-event damage assessment; diversified port network means loss of one port is survivable

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9. CROSS-REFERENCES

Document	Relationship
Doc #1 — National Stockpile Strategy	Ports are the logistics nodes for national stockpile distribution
Doc #8 — National Census	Identifies port workers, pilots, harbor masters, marine engineers
Doc #13 — Coastal Pilot	Navigational guide for approaching and entering all NZ ports
Doc #33 — Tires	Port vehicles (forklifts, trucks) depend on tires
Doc #52 — Wire and Cable	Wire rope supply for cranes and cargo handling
Doc #53 — Fuel Allocation	Marine fuel allocation determines port equipment operational life
Doc #56 — Wood Gasification	Alternative fuel for port vehicles and potentially vessels
Doc #57 — Biodiesel and Alcohol	Alternative fuel for marine diesel equipment
Doc #89 — NZ Steel	Steel supply for fabricating port equipment, shear legs, derricks
Doc #91 — Machine Shop Operations	Fabrication and repair of port equipment and fittings
Doc #97 — Cement and Concrete	Wharf maintenance and repair
Doc #138 — Sailing Vessel Design	The vessels that ports will increasingly serve
Doc #141 — Wooden Boatbuilding	Construction of vessels including harbor craft and lighters
Doc #145 — Workforce Reallocation	Framework for redeploying port workers as operations change
Doc #109 — Trans-Tasman Relations	Trade relationship that drives port requirements
Doc #160 — Heritage Skills	Capturing knowledge from retiring port professionals

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FOOTNOTES

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1. NZ commercial ports: NZ has thirteen significant commercial ports operated by regional port companies (most partially council-owned). The major ports and their operating companies are documented in Ministry of Transport reports and individual port company annual reports. See Ministry of Transport, “New Zealand Port and Freight Infrastructure,” various editions. https://www.transport.govt.nz/ Total combined throughput of approximately 50 million tonnes annually is an estimate; the figure varies year to year.↩︎

2. Port employment: individual port companies report direct employment in annual reports. Ports of Auckland employs approximately 500–600 directly; Port of Tauranga approximately 300–400; smaller ports 50–200 each. Figures are approximate and based on pre-event published data. Full-time-equivalent and contractor numbers add complexity to these estimates.↩︎

3. Coastal shipping efficiency: a general cargo vessel carrying 2,000 tonnes replaces approximately 80 truck-and-trailer units (at 25 tonnes each). Energy efficiency per tonne-kilometre for coastal shipping is approximately 3–5 times better than road transport. See Ministry of Transport, “National Freight Demand Study,” 2018.↩︎

4. NZ commercial ports: NZ has thirteen significant commercial ports operated by regional port companies (most partially council-owned). The major ports and their operating companies are documented in Ministry of Transport reports and individual port company annual reports. See Ministry of Transport, “New Zealand Port and Freight Infrastructure,” various editions. https://www.transport.govt.nz/ Total combined throughput of approximately 50 million tonnes annually is an estimate; the figure varies year to year.↩︎

5. NZ’s full port network includes Whangarei (Northport, serving the Marsden Point area), Gisborne (Eastland Port), Timaru (PrimePort), and the West Coast ports. These handle smaller volumes and more specialized cargoes. Source: individual port company websites and annual reports.↩︎

6. Container gantry cranes: NZ’s major ports use ship-to-shore (STS) gantry cranes manufactured by Liebherr (Austria), ZPMC (Shanghai Zhenhua Heavy Industries), and historically Paceco. These cranes typically have a lifting capacity of 40–65 tonnes under the spreader and an outreach of 40–65 metres. They represent some of the most complex heavy machinery in NZ. Specific crane counts and specifications by port are published in port company annual reports and infrastructure plans.↩︎

7. Crane electronic component lifespan: modern crane control systems use PLCs (programmable logic controllers) and VFDs (variable frequency drives) manufactured by companies such as Siemens, ABB, and Allen-Bradley. These electronic components have typical service lives of 10–20 years with maintenance, but some components (particularly electrolytic capacitors in VFDs) fail sooner. Without imported replacement components, the expected operational life is an estimate of 5–15 years — the range reflects uncertainty about which components fail first and whether NZ electrical engineers can effect repairs or workarounds. This figure requires verification with NZ port engineering staff.↩︎

8. Dredging data: individual port companies report dredging volumes in annual reports and resource consent applications. The figures cited are approximate. Siltation rates are highly site-specific and depend on river sediment inputs, coastal processes, and storm events.↩︎

9. NZ port tugs and pilot boats: each major NZ port operates 1–3 harbour tugs and 1–2 pilot boats. Tugs at NZ ports are typically 25–35 metres, 30–60 tonnes bollard pull, diesel-powered with Voith Schneider or azimuth drives. Pilot boats are typically 12–18 metre fast vessels. Both types are diesel-dependent and imported. Source: individual port company annual reports and fleet information pages.↩︎

10. Global container shipping system: approximately 95% of shipping containers are manufactured in China. The global container fleet numbers approximately 40–50 million TEU (twenty-foot equivalent units). Container ship construction is concentrated in South Korea, China, and Japan. Source: Drewry Maritime Research; UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport (annual).↩︎

11. Container vs. break-bulk throughput: a modern STS gantry crane achieves approximately 25–30 container moves per hour (source: Port of Tauranga operational data; UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport). At an average of approximately 14–25 tonnes per loaded container (20ft and 40ft mix), this represents roughly 400–750 tonnes per hour per crane. Break-bulk cargo handling with ship’s derricks and shore cranes typically achieves 10–30 tonnes per hour per gang, depending on cargo type. Bagged cargo and drums are at the lower end; palletised goods and sling loads at the higher end. Source: Alderton, P.M., “Port Management and Operations,” Informa, various editions.↩︎

12. Break-bulk cargo handling in NZ: NZ’s ports transitioned to containerization from the late 1960s through the 1980s. The Ports of Auckland handled its first container ship in 1971. Before containerization, all NZ port cargo was handled as break-bulk using ship’s derricks, shore cranes, and manual labor. Source: NZ Maritime Museum; individual port company histories.↩︎

13. Thames sailing barge operations — loading and unloading at simple wharves, drying out on tidal flats, and use of lighters for cargo transfer — are documented in Carr, F.G.G., “Sailing Barges,” Peter Davies, 1951. These methods were standard worldwide until the mid-20th century and represent the likely future of NZ sail cargo operations.↩︎

14. Maori maritime knowledge and place names: many NZ coastal place names in te reo Maori encode navigational and environmental information. For example, place names referencing currents (au), rocks (toka), harbors (whanga), and winds provide information relevant to maritime operations. See: Best, E., “The Maori,” Memoirs of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 5, 1924 (reprinted); also Reed, A.W., “The Reed Dictionary of New Zealand Place Names,” various editions. Integration of this knowledge into port operations and the coastal pilot (Doc #13) should be led by local iwi and hapu.↩︎

15. Container gantry cranes: NZ’s major ports use ship-to-shore (STS) gantry cranes manufactured by Liebherr (Austria), ZPMC (Shanghai Zhenhua Heavy Industries), and historically Paceco. These cranes typically have a lifting capacity of 40–65 tonnes under the spreader and an outreach of 40–65 metres. They represent some of the most complex heavy machinery in NZ. Specific crane counts and specifications by port are published in port company annual reports and infrastructure plans.↩︎

16. NZ container crane count: the total of approximately 20–25 STS gantry cranes across all NZ ports is an estimate based on published port company data. Tauranga has the most (approximately 7–9 cranes), Auckland approximately 5–6, Lyttelton approximately 3–4, and smaller numbers at other ports. These figures require verification from current port company reports.↩︎

17. Crane control simplification: rewiring a crane from PLC/VFD control to simpler relay-based control is technically possible but represents a significant electrical engineering project. The underlying crane mechanisms — structural steel, wire rope, electric motors, gearing — are robust and long-lived; the electronic control layer is the vulnerable component. NZ has electrical engineers with the skills for this work, but each crane is a unique re-engineering challenge. The trade-off is reduced speed, precision, and safety interlocking in exchange for continued operation.↩︎

18. Harakeke (NZ flax, Phormium tenax) rope performance: harakeke fibre has a tensile strength of approximately 440–580 MPa (Source: Duchemin, B. et al., “Structure-property relationships of New Zealand flax fibre,” Composites Part A, 2003). Equivalent-diameter wire rope (6x19 construction, fibre core) has breaking strengths of approximately 1,000–1,600 MPa depending on grade. Harakeke rope is also susceptible to UV degradation, moisture absorption (which reduces strength by 10–20%), and has significant elongation under load (5–15% at working load vs. <2% for wire rope). Service life for harakeke rope in marine use is estimated at 6–18 months vs. 2–5 years for wire rope. These figures are estimates based on available fibre property data; systematic testing of harakeke rope for industrial lifting applications has not been published.↩︎

19. Ship’s derricks: a standard cargo derrick consists of a boom (steel or timber) pivoting at the base of a mast, with guys (wire or rope) controlling the boom angle and a hoisting tackle (wire rope through blocks, powered by a winch or manual purchase). Lifting capacity depends on boom length, tackle arrangement, and structural strength — typically 1–10 tonnes for vessels in the 15–30 metre range. Design and fabrication are within NZ engineering capability.↩︎

20. NZ mobile crane fleet: NZ has a substantial fleet of mobile cranes used in construction, with operators including BHL Cranes, Freo Group, Liebherr NZ, and many regional operators. The fleet numbers hundreds of units nationally, ranging from small truck-mounted cranes (10–25 tonnes) to large crawler cranes (100+ tonnes). Source: Crane Association of New Zealand.↩︎

21. Shear legs: paired inclined beams or masts forming an A-frame, with hoisting tackle suspended from the apex. Used for heavy lifting at shipyards, wharves, and construction sites since antiquity. Can be fabricated from steel beams (readily available from NZ Steel) or heavy timber. Capacity depends on structural design — 20–50+ tonnes is achievable with steel construction. See any shipyard engineering reference; also Walton, T., “Steel Ships: Their Construction and Maintenance,” Charles Griffin & Co., various editions.↩︎

22. Chain hoist fabrication: a manual chain hoist (chain block) is a compact lifting device using a hand chain to drive a gear train that lifts a load chain. The mechanism is well-understood and uses standard components: load chain, hand chain, toothed gears, ratchet, brake, and hooks. NZ foundries (Doc #91) and machine shops (Doc #91) can fabricate chain hoists from NZ-produced steel and iron. Service life is decades with maintenance.↩︎

23. Manual stevedoring rates: a gang of 10–15 stevedores unloading break-bulk cargo from a small vessel (50–100 tonnes) using gangplanks, handcarts, and slings achieves approximately 1–3 tonnes per hour per gang for mixed general cargo (sacks, drums, crates). At this rate, a 50-tonne vessel takes 17–50 hours of working time, or 1–3 working days at 10–16 hours per day. Rates vary enormously by cargo type: bagged grain is slower than palletised goods. Source: based on historical stevedoring records and Alderton, P.M., “Port Management and Operations,” Informa, various editions.↩︎

24. NZ fuel distribution: the fuel supply chain involves import terminals, the Marsden Point to Auckland pipeline (now used for refined product distribution after the Marsden Point refinery closure in 2022), and coastal fuel distribution. Source: Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE), “Energy in New Zealand” (annual). Port bunkering facilities are operated by fuel companies (Z Energy, BP, Mobil) at major NZ ports.↩︎

25. NZ minimum fuel stockholding: the Petroleum Demand Restraint Act 1981 and industry agreements require NZ to hold minimum fuel stocks. The 90-day figure is based on International Energy Agency (IEA) obligation days for NZ. Actual stock levels vary. Source: MBIE petroleum data.↩︎

26. Electric tug conversion: battery-electric tugs (e.g., Damen RSD-E Tug 2513) have entered service internationally but have significantly limited range (typically 1–3 hours of operation vs. effectively unlimited range for diesel tugs) and reduced bollard pull relative to equivalent-size diesel tugs. Converting an existing diesel tug requires removing the engine and fuel tanks, installing battery banks (typically lithium-ion, which NZ does not manufacture), electric motors, and power management systems. The project duration estimate of 6–18 months is based on international electric vessel conversion experience. NZ’s grid-powered shore charging infrastructure is an advantage, but the battery supply constraint is a significant barrier. Source: general marine engineering literature; Damen Shipyards technical publications.↩︎

27. Sailing pilot cutters: harbor pilotage was conducted from sailing vessels at every major port worldwide until powered pilot boats became standard in the early-to-mid 20th century. Bristol Channel pilot cutters and Falmouth working boats are well-documented historical examples. These were fast, seaworthy sailing vessels of approximately 10–15 metres, capable of operating offshore in heavy weather. NZ’s existing fleet of offshore-capable sailing yachts could serve this role with minimal modification. See: Cunliffe, T., “Pilots: The World of Pilotage Under Sail and Oar,” Volume 1 and 2, Fernhurst Books, 2001.↩︎

28. Maritime Transport Act 1994, Part 5 — Pilotage. Pilotage is compulsory in all NZ commercial ports for vessels above specified tonnage thresholds. The Act vests pilotage authority in the harbor master. Source: NZ Legislation. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/↩︎

29. NZ harbor pilot numbers: the estimate of 30–50 nationally is approximate. Each major port typically employs 3–6 pilots; smaller ports may have 1–2. The total depends on how trainees and part-time pilots are counted. Verification through the national census (Doc #8) is recommended.↩︎

30. Sailing pilot cutters: harbor pilotage was conducted from sailing vessels at every major port worldwide until powered pilot boats became standard in the early-to-mid 20th century. Bristol Channel pilot cutters and Falmouth working boats are well-documented historical examples. These were fast, seaworthy sailing vessels of approximately 10–15 metres, capable of operating offshore in heavy weather. NZ’s existing fleet of offshore-capable sailing yachts could serve this role with minimal modification. See: Cunliffe, T., “Pilots: The World of Pilotage Under Sail and Oar,” Volume 1 and 2, Fernhurst Books, 2001.↩︎

31. Vessel traffic management for mixed sail and powered traffic is more complex than for powered traffic alone because sailing vessels have limited maneuverability — they cannot stop, reverse, or turn on demand. Harbor masters must understand sailing vessel handling characteristics to manage mixed traffic safely. Historical harbor regulations (e.g., Trinity House pilotage regulations in the UK) addressed sail and steam coexistence and provide useful precedent. Source: Trinity House, “Regulations for Pilots and Pilotage,” various historical editions.↩︎

32. Tauranga approach channel: the Port of Tauranga maintains a shipping channel dredged to approximately 14.5 m. Natural depth in the entrance channel is significantly less (exact figures vary by location within the channel). Source: Port of Tauranga annual reports and environmental consent documents.↩︎

33. Bluff approach channel: maintained by South Port NZ. The channel requires ongoing dredging to sustain commercial access. Without dredging, access for vessels drawing more than approximately 5–6 m may be restricted over time. Source: South Port NZ annual reports.↩︎

34. Dredging data: individual port companies report dredging volumes in annual reports and resource consent applications. The figures cited are approximate. Siltation rates are highly site-specific and depend on river sediment inputs, coastal processes, and storm events.↩︎

35. Siltation rate estimates: the range of 0.3–1.0 m per year is a generalized estimate for NZ dredging-dependent ports. Actual rates vary enormously by location, river sediment inputs, coastal processes, and storm frequency. Some berth pockets may silt faster; some approach channels may silt slower. Systematic monitoring (sounding) is the only reliable way to track actual depth changes.↩︎

36. Thames sailing barge operations — loading and unloading at simple wharves, drying out on tidal flats, and use of lighters for cargo transfer — are documented in Carr, F.G.G., “Sailing Barges,” Peter Davies, 1951. These methods were standard worldwide until the mid-20th century and represent the likely future of NZ sail cargo operations.↩︎

37. Grab dredge vs. trailing suction hopper dredge capacity: a barge-mounted grab crane operating as a dredge typically achieves 50–200 m^3 per day depending on bucket size, cycle time, and disposal distance. A purpose-built trailing suction hopper dredge (such as those used at NZ ports) achieves 5,000–20,000 m^3 per day. The grab dredge is therefore 1–2% as productive but can be fabricated from locally available components (barge, crane, grab bucket, shore power cable), whereas a trailing suction hopper dredge cannot be built in NZ. Source: Bray, R.N. et al., “Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers,” Butterworth-Heinemann, various editions.↩︎